Who maintains the bitcoin software?
Is it all open source?
It is open source.
Is it possible that someone could corrupt the software?
Everyone would see it.
I don't think any code would ever be accepted to an official release without some peer verification.
Is it possible that someone could use a modified version of the software to corrupt the bitciin chain?
How?
I've seen references to some sort of security flaw which was fixed in the latest version of the software. When a problem like this occurs, who steps in to fix it? How does that process happen?
Where can I read more about what happened, what went wrong, and how it was resolved?
I think you're talking about the overflow bug. You'll find lots of discussions about it here in the forum.
Does one person (the creator?) have "the Master password" which could "unlock" the chain... allowing him to do such things as... modify the limit of 21 million bitcoins, for example?
No.
If Intel were to release a CPU 1,000,000 times faster than the fastest current CPUs on the market today, (and internet connections suddenly became 1,000,000 times faster too), how would that affect bitcoin generation, and the bitcoin economy?
The difficulty to generate blocks would raise proportionally.
Who's most "in charge of" or most "in control of" the bitcoin network? What person(s) or entity(ies)?
No one, it's P2P open software.