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December 13, 2013, 05:37:13 AM |
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Band: Bands have a loose organization. Their power structure is often egalitarian and has informal leadership; the older members of the band generally are looked to for guidance and advice, and decisions are often made on a consensus basis,[2] but there are no written laws and none of the specialised coercive roles (e.g., police) typically seen in more complex societies. Bands' customs are almost always transmitted orally. Formal social institutions are few or non-existent. Religion is generally based on family tradition, individual experience, or counsel from a shaman. All known band societies hunt and gather to obtain their subsistence.
Tribe: A tribe is viewed, historically or developmentally, as a social group existing before the development of, or outside of, states. Many people used the term tribal society to refer to societies organized largely on the basis of social, especially corporate, descent groups (see clan and kinship).
The name "Tribe" is one that anthropologists are trying to move away from and tribes are now being referred to as a segmentary society. A segmentary society is larger than a mobile hunter-gatherer group, but is smaller than a chiefdom. The typical size is more than a hundred but not bigger than a few thousand.
These societies are farmers and their diet mainly consists of cultivate plants and domesticated animals; few are nomad pastoralists. The society consists of individual communities which are then connected to the large society through kinship.[1]
Segmentary societies have Religious elders and calendrical rituals. Hierarchy is not based on age, gender or ability- but is based on small attributes, such as birth order. They do have officials and some even have a capital, but the officials do not have a strong amount of power.[2] A segmentary society was the society that all early farmers had. They typically live in villages or settled agricultural homesteads. Their homes and society are settled.
Settlements are found in a dispersed pattern (permanently occupied houses) or a nucleated pattern (permanent villages). The permanent villages can have either a collection of free-standing houses, or building grouped together in a cluster. An example of free standing houses are the farmers of Danube Valley in Europe, which occupied the space in 4500 BC. The cluster of buildings, also known as agglomerate, can be found at the Pueblos in America’s Southwest.[3]
Pueblo, agglomerate
Some political economic theorists such as Elman Service. hold that tribes represent a stage in sociocultural evolution intermediate between bands and states. Other theorists, such as Morton Fried, argue that tribes developed after states, and must be understood in terms of their relationship to them.
'Tribe' is a contested term due to its roots in colonialism. The word has no shared referent, whether in political form, kinship relations, or shared culture. It conveys a negative connotation of a timeless unchanging past. [4][5][6] To avoid these implications, some have chosen to use the terms 'ethnic group', or nation instead.
Nation Building:At one stage,[when?] nation-building referred to the efforts of newly-independent nations, notably the nations of Africa but also in the Balkans,[2][3] to reshape territories that had been carved out by colonial powers or empires without regard to ethnic, religious, or other boundaries.[4] These reformed states would then become viable and coherent national entities.[5]
Nation-building includes the creation of national paraphernalia such as flags, anthems, national days, national stadiums, national airlines, national languages, and national myths.[6][7] At a deeper level, national identity needed to be deliberately constructed by molding different ethnic groups into a nation, especially since in many newly established states colonial practices of divide and rule had resulted in ethnically heterogeneous populations.[8]
However, many new states were plagued by "tribalism", rivalry between ethnic groups within the nation. This sometimes resulted in their near-disintegration, such as the attempt by Biafra to secede from Nigeria in 1970, or the continuing demand of the Somali people in the Ogaden region of Ethiopia for complete independence. In Asia, the disintegration of India into Pakistan and Bangladesh is another example where ethnic differences, aided by geographic distance, tore apart a post-colonial state. The Rwandan genocide as well as the recurrent problems experienced by the Sudan can also be related to a lack of ethnic, religious, or racial cohesion within the nation. It has often proved difficult to unite states with similar ethnic but different colonial backgrounds. Whereas successful examples like Cameroon do exist, failures like Senegambia Confederation demonstrate the problems of uniting Francophone and Anglophone territories.
Jus sanguinis: (Latin: right of blood) is a principle of nationality law by which citizenship is not determined by place of birth but by having one or both parents who are citizens of the state. Children at birth may automatically be citizens if their parents have state citizenship or national identities of ethnic, cultural or other origins.[1] Citizenship can also apply to children whose parents belong to a diaspora and were not themselves citizens of the state conferring citizenship. This principle contrasts with jus soli (Latin: right of soil).[2]
At the end of the 19th century, the French-German debate on nationality saw the French, such as Ernest Renan, oppose the German conception, exemplified by Johann Fichte, who believed in an "objective nationality", based on blood, race or language. Renan's republican conception, but perhaps also the presence of a German-speaking population in Alsace-Lorraine, explains France's early adoption of jus soli. Many nations have a mixture of jus sanguinis and jus soli, including the United States, Canada, Israel, Greece, Ireland, and recently Germany.
Today France only narrowly applies jus sanguinis, but it is still the most common means of passing on citizenship in many continental European countries. Some countries provide almost the same rights as a citizen to people born in the country, without actually giving them citizenship. An example is Indfødsret in Denmark, which provides that upon reaching 18, non-citizen residents can decide to take a test to gain citizenship.
Some modern European states which arose out dissolved empires, like the Austro-Hungarian or Ottoman, have huge numbers of ethnic populations outside of their new 'national' boundaries, as do most of the former Soviet states. Such long-standing diasporas do not conform to codified 20th-century European rules of citizenship.
In many cases, jus sanguinis rights are mandated by international treaty, with citizenship definitions imposed by the international community. In other cases, minorities are subject to legal and extra-legal persecution and choose to immigrate to their ancestral home country. States offering jus sanguinis rights to ethnic citizens and their descendants include Italy, Greece, Turkey, Bulgaria, and Romania. Each is required by international treaty to extend those rights.
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