The main person that sequenced DNA, is Craig Venter. When someone says "Humans are 99% similar to Chimps" he is the guy who mapped his Genome and compared it to a Chimp. After discovering DNA, he went on to create "Synthetic DNA", "Synthetic Life" and "Biological Teleportation". While studying Yeast, he found that if you add some simple compounds (Amino Acids), the Yeast will actually use that to make new Chromosomes, New Genetic Material. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yeast_artificial_chromosomeSo from watching yeast, Craig Venter created a machine, this machine can take DNA and convert it into a computer code of 1's and 0's. So DNA is literally not much different than a computer code. The machine that does this is the "Digital Biological Converter". Then that DNA can be send through the Cloud, and printed out in another Digital Biological Conveter. This is called "Biological Teleportation". They can also create DNA by using computer code, and use the Digital Biological Converter to insert that DNA in to an empty cell, and the cell acts like Hardware and the DNA acts like software. It does not matter what kind of cell you use, it will operate as if it is the cell of whatever DNA you put in. The DNA works like a disc and the Cell works like a computer to run the disk. http://www.theguardian.com/science/2013/oct/13/craig-ventner-mars |
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I want to explain a normal Town Project, where the Town does not offer you housing, does not offer you Full Unemployment, or anything like that, and it is considered an Example Project by all other budding Towns. People think it is hard to get a town on the map, but all it takes is a Highway and some money (Coin)    THIS IS MY HOME TOWN =Mckinney, TX / Collin County= When most people look at Texas politically they see Dallas, they see Austin and maybe Houston. But Mckinney and Collin county are really more important than anyone sees. First off, it has a pretty big population of people (19th biggest in Texas) and more importantly, it has a big population of people that leave when they get old enough (unless they can't afford to and stay to live with their parents, while some get apartments in town and party into their twenties)... So, that makes the primary residents of Mckinney and the surrounding suburbs older and republican, and because of the number of churches, the cities status as "dry" and the lack of nightlife forces people into a Christian lifestyle. When we were younger we used to say "You need to be 40 or extremely Christian to have fun here." So even the kids are going other places to have fun, spreading their politics and stuff. But I'm not to that yet. It is primarily Christian, Older & Republican (most of the wealth comes from oil companies, prison industry or weapons technology companies like RAYTHEON, which is the single biggest employer in the entire town, including city staff and the school district.). So the 19th biggest population in Texas has a pretty solid voting status, with the exception of people who do stay when they get older, in which case they will have more liberal, democratic, libertarian or in most cases democratic-republican or liberal-republican veiws views because of the house-to-house party and crazy police environment they were raised in. Which brings me to my next point in the importance of Mckinney and Collin county in general. The kids grow up there, and go to Dallas or Arlington or Fort Worth or Austin or Houston or Denton looking for people more similar to them, so the kids from Mckinney are in some cases important to the politics of the other political hubs of Texas. And with all this political importance, the town runs on arrests (tax money going to privately owned jails), probation fees, court fees, tickets and basically other predatory tactics on its own citizens, with a fairly heavy focus on arresting minors. The mayor is a LAWYER (I went to school with his daughter ) But I sense a change in the politics in Mckinney and thus a change in the politics of Texas. 1st, tons of people are staying to go to community college instead of real college, because it's not a community college now it's a "real 4 year university" since UNT adopted it. 2nd, it is the hub of jails, courts and probation so everyone has to go to Mckinney, and not only learns where it is, but meets the other criminals from there and around there. And Mckinney has a lot of money, which I'm guessing is appealing to criminals. And in my opinion, the police focus too much on children and aren't prepared for 30yr old meth heads with AK-47s, as proven by the 1 man assault on the police station a few years back, in which one man blew up a truck in the police parking lot and fired three weapons for 5 minutes before being shot down. 3rd, there are so many schools there, and most of them are NOT making kids republican because they are piss testing them and filling the halls with officers. 4th, Mckinney hides most of it's politics, making it seem like it's something lawyers and doctors do and not regular people. The most you see is a sign on the side of the road or in someone's yard, which means that if some new wave of politics hits Texas, they aren't prepared to fight it... McKinney's current slogan is "Unique by Nature" =Parks= And I think we need to get more parks and rec programs going on in McKinney. The only people that use the parks are boyscouts and stoners, so it's just empty or random parked cars most of the time. And we have some pretty big parks, like Erwin park. So even festivals and stuff could be held there, and a hundred thousand people could be there. Bike riders use the park, so maybe races and stuff too. And honestly, I think a cannabis festival would be well received by the community, since everyone I went to highschool with is 18-25 now And my school is like AAAA with like 6,000+ kids and over 1/4 mile from one end of the building to the other. So that's a lot of stoners, 1/4 or more of which probably still live in town, in the surrounding suburbs, or in the surrounding countryside. There is a group in McKinney known as the "Crape Myrtle Trails" and I know quite a bit about it, because when we were younger my stepmom talked about how she was like an important member or something. But there is NOTHING good about the Crape Myrtle trails. True, they plant pretty trees. But honestly, there are WAY prettier trees to be planted. It's ok to want to plant a few Crape Myrtles, but my stepmom told me about charity dinners where they literally earn $1,000,000+ for planting crap myrtles... That's TOO many, you can't just ATTACK an ecosystem like that (that is what they were doing, they plant them on every median and every sidewalk in town). A few years ago the trees even grew these weird beetles things, it looked like scaled that started as like bark colored and turned black if I remember correctly. But my point is, this kind of things isn't normal. They build an environment for that beetle to thrive, which effected the ecosystem by bringing MASS numbers of those beetles. Now, as an example: what if that beetle attracted a certain bird, and that bird ha a better beak for suburban living the natural birds of McKinney. Like they are better at digging into the mortar between bricks or something like that. Now those Texas birds get wiped out, and what if those birds are easier prey for wolves increasing the wolf population (just a crazy example explaining how the ecosystem works), or the bird carries a disease that can be transmitted to humans. Planting a few of each plant in various places is ok, but planting ONE plant everywhere is not ok. We should plant different kinds of fruit trees, so that the plants are useable. We should contract farmers to plant and harvest trees on public property all over town. A portion of it goes to the feeding community centers, while the farmers keep the rest. But the city keeps up regular watering and weed maintenance as it does now. And if that project could get as much funding as the crape myrtle trails project, we could feed hundreds of families, while making the town beautiful. Instead of making it beautiful at an unknown eco-price. *Cook-Offs We already have a Chili cook-off, and I believe we should: 1. Make that festival bigger and more musical 2. Make more culinary festivals like it. ex: Carne Asada contest, after the chili contest, people can marinate meat from hunting or just purchasing, and marinate it to submit in a carne asada contest. Some people put it on fries, some on burritos, or just whatever they can think of. Bake off, which I think a few churches already do, but why not have one at town lake and hire a few local bands. Candy Contest, have people make home made candy and have a contest. And it could fit in well with Halloween in the square. It's Texas, so their should just be a general "Meat" festival where it's steak, burgers and everything else. It's a suburb full of dads, they will have plenty of stuff to enter in the contest. It's McKinney, so a Wine festival and Oktober fest is almost like "Why don't they already do that?". There are plenty of companies in town that could submit into, or even sponsor events like this. And people in McKinney love to get out and eat shit. And having an eating contest at any of these events would probably completely get involvement, I can think of a few "eaters" in McKinney. *Festivals In McKinney there is a little "historic" type stone area made to look like a Croatian village. My friends uncle was the contractor building it, so they used to have band practice in the parking garage, and now they have July fireworks events next to it. I think they should use that area for more festivals. They should poll the community, and see how many people would be interested in different festivals. And since it is a historic type village, I suggest heritage and art festivals. Like a day where there are Irish stalls and beer, Celtic art and fried stuff and stuff for St. Patricks. And same thing but German and sausage for Oktoberfest. Then February have a Black history festival with people who speak, artists who make art and music that empower the black community. Then a Mexican heritage celebration for cinco de mayo, etc. It would really bring people together, and teach them about culture and food from different places, while letting the people that are party of those cultures show everyone their heritage. =Innovation= And, there should be a stage at trade days, OR trade days should be held at the football stadium in town so it is more like the fair, and therefor more desirable to go to I think there should be a studio in McKinney, so that companies are encouraged to make their own commercials, and the children in our highschool's drama programs have something to aspire to besides MOVING. I'm sure a few people here know what Bitcoin mining is. Our town has like 3 libraries, plus a library in every school. If they put a program in place to turn 1 library into a mining facility, the town could be WILDLY profitable. We had one of the first 3 environmentally friendly Wal Marts in America, meaning that it was powered by wind and solar panels. If we started using the same technology on the government buildings, and especially the mining facility if that ever happens, the town could basically run for free. Then eventually it could work on equipping all houses with solar and wind attachments, to the point that it is no less common that having a toilet in your home. And Collin Count is THE richest county in Texas, so it would be the best place to start a project like that. A surplus of money and a surplus of sun. McKinney should get murals made constantly. Every holiday, or celebration should be kept in everyone's memory by some shop owner (or school, public lot or church if that is where it is held) with a mural on a wall or section of parking lot, or some form of totem or statue/art. This solidifies the neighborhood because they can point and say "I was part of that", as well as gives jobs to artists that may try to put their art in public illegally without an outlet such as this. And this can help us create celebrated artists that our town promotes nationally. =AirPort= We also have our own Airport, I really think that should be expanded as it would increase trade to and from our town, which would in turn create a wider product base for local stores (we have a crazy shopping scene, because the town square has been taken over by girls and gay dudes, which isn't a bad thing, it's really good for small businesses). And the whole thing would create more jobs because airports need people and so do stores with more products. And honestly, I don't believe that the stores in McKinney can support the population it is trying to build, because that is McKinney's number one focus and has been for years: Building houses and putting people in them. But we need more now. They did just build 3 hospitals, which is great for jobs, but an airport would just be 1,000x better. 1st, you don't have to be a brain surgeon to work at an airport. 2, the airport can take you places like dallas ft worth, cutting down commute time and overall traffic on the highways from Oklahoma to Dallas. =Media= I believe the government of Collin county should support a studio/media program. We have a local newspaper, and a branch of UNT at our community college. So if the newpaper and county government supported a journalism program at the college, they could start a small media outlet there, then eventually evolve into a studio. Because again, the town has tons of drama programs in the highschools, but the only option is to leave after highschool for those kids. So if we expanded the journalism jobs in the city, and created a studio there would be a place for those kids to go. Because not only are there a lot of highschool drama programs, but there are photo journalism and other journalism programs, but only a small newspaper in town, and then like the Dallas Morning news to aspire to. They really need more local incentive and opportunity. I think our town should make its own reality shows and put them online. Made has come to our school, Intervention has been on the East side and Dax Flame was in 21 Jump Street and Project X, so I don't see why the parents don't encourage the kids to make videos. It seems like the kids are doing it themselves, and with pretty bad quality. That includes me, I make my videos from my iphone and don't edit shit, but that's because I don't have support and can't afford things to get better, until I put out the shitty shit and make some money to spend on it. If we had a studio, or just a group in town that had a loan or grant to make reality shows, they could start on YouTube and I don't doubt that some of them would end up on TV. There is WAY more interesting stuff going on in McKinney than the stuff they've already put on TV. I bet the Courier Gazette could afford to do it, and Newspapers are always looking for new stuff to do. McKinney has tons of girls obsessed with fashion, but the only real outlet is facebook until they are old enough to leave and go to Dallas, and even in Dallas the chances of them being anything but a club promoter or stripper are slim to none. I think McKinney should have fashion programs in place. 1, a media studio for people to make costumes and wardrobe for. 2, actual fashion type organizations to hold fashion shows. 3, there should be fashion festivals, where people can show off the things they've made and sell stuff. There are plenty of clothing companies in McKinney that need exposure like this, all they have right now is the ability to get a billboard or magazine add. =Education= I think there should be more field trips and the children should have more educational assemblies. I don't understand why we don't have our kids ask questions of public officials, or go to places like the town hall and see how they operate. I promise our town could handle tours, I've been in just about EVERY government building in the town, and there is NOT that much going on. Groups of 20-30 kids with a few teachers could easily maneuver around any judicial and by my guess executive government building. Classrooms should utilize programs like AdSense and Bitcoin mining. Parents and kids should have to sign a waiver saying that students CAN use their cell phones, cameras and other devices in the classrooms of teachers that deem it acceptable. And the teachers should use the rule to make class projects that get online support/viewers, which means the ability to share ideas nationally and internationally and collaborate. As well as earn money from views. There should be a contract that teachers sign that allows them to keep 50% of the revenue from ads, and the other 50% goes to class projects. But they can't allow projects to steer off curriculum. Basically like helping our teachers get tips, while teaching their students with the help and collaboration of other teachers. Same with the mining machine, it would tip the teacher while putting money into the curriculum. And the schools should get to vote on when the extra money goes, because I'm sure there will be leftover money every year from the 50% that goes to projects. The county could eventually even start its own adsense type program to promote the community through ads, while helping independent artists and classrooms thrive. The police, health, fire and other government departments should also utilize these programs to earn extra income by creating "cops" like programs, which will also keep them honest since they have viewers. The libraries should have public printing machines to promote free speech. They should cost money per use, like how it costs like 10 cents per page to print paper out at the Library. And I don't mean just put more printers, I mean like Xerox machines and brother machines. So that people can make large posters, write pamphlets, door hangers, mailers or t-shirts and stuff. It would increase free speech amazingly, and it would provide the need and resources to hire graphic artists in our libraries. Smiley And this should already exist, instead of having to go to a company like Kinko's and pay fifty cents to a dollar for a regular piece of paper with regular ink printed on it. We could even contract companies that already exist and have machines to start operating out of the libraries. This could be a shared venture with the post office to help the post office be profitable and convenient in terms of printing lots of stuff and shipping it. There should also be a publishing program, where you can submit writing to the library for a chance to get your book/story/biography published and stocked on the library shelves. We could create a pretty big writers society in Collin county. =Biodiesel= Texas doesn't use the oil it digs up for sale, it stores the oil it gets and buys oil for cars from countries like Saudi Arabia. So I think Collin county, or at least the McKinney Independent school district should switch to Biodiesel, then a chain of gas stations should get the contract to buy corn from local farmers and start supplying biodiesel at their gas stations, as well as like a biodiesel pump at the school bus gas station. Then eventually put a biodiesel public transport program, so there are buses running on biodiesel. And that way there would be more reason for the surrounding farmers to grow corn besides making high fructose corn syrup. And used cooking oil wouldn't go to waste at all the local restaurants. And McKinney could become a big player in the "Green Movement" by opening a biodiesel company. Any town in Collin county could start a half liquor half biodiesel company, or pay a company like everclear to come into town and do it. Everyone drinks in Texas, and everyone needs to drive no matter where you are, so it can't fail. |
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An outside company will be contracted for regular building, these will just be built for anyone that wants publically built housing. You only get a Cobb/Earthship/Geodome if you want a FREE houseThe outline of an Earthship is made with old tires for insulation. The tires are framed with wood, and filled with concrete, some people fill the tires with soda cans or dirt, then concrete. Then some people put soda cans on the outside of the tires in the concrete also.     We will also add "cobb" extentions to each house, using what we dig up when making basements. Cob is fire & Earthquake resistant. Earthships are built east to west, with the glass facing the sun rise, and usually they try to use the dirt to make a small hill facing the sunset, which is where the rainwater collection chamber usually is. But reading about Cob material, I'm thinking we can just use the sandy ground in New Mexico, dig until we hit clay or buy some, then grow some canary reed to use as straw (grows very quickly). Then just add water and we can make an extension to each house, instead of a hill facing the sunset. We will also offer trailers (like the back/hitch/trailer of an 18 wheeler) to bury and use as basements, or use above ground as housing:  It will be practical, because we plan on getting trailers to bury and use as basements (so everyone has room for mining machines), so we will probably get a backhoe to dig holes, and will have plenty of raw dirt/sand.  COB     And our EarthShips will be different than most: 1. Each person will have at least three acres, so we won't be making small ones. 2. Geodomes outside will be used as green houses, making more room in the larger EarthShips 3. Adobe will be used to build extensions. 4. Trailers will be used to make basements, allowing for WAY more space. The free market will still be there. "Town work" will just be posted on bulletin boards or the internet, the whole point is just to have the town approve it so that the workers are paid by the town (if you can't afford to hire your own people), and people in town can earn some money. Some people won't be moving to the land they buy, so we will have some plots that are rented out for maintenance or cash (by people that want to live in town but can't afford a plot, or by young people who get their parents to get them a place in town or something) by the owner, and those people will most likely be looking to the bulletin boards for work all the time. And if you wanted to hire someone yourself from around town, that wouldn't be a problem at all. As long as you paid them with your money. Also, we will be digging wells all over the land, so everyone cross your fingers for oil when we're looking for water. And we have a professional dowser who can find water for us. As well as a Geologist/Engineer who could tell us if oil is possibly nearby, and appraise any minerals we find |
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#ASIC #Mining White Papers http://www.allied-control.com/publications/Analysis_of_Large-Scale_Bitcoin_Mining_Operations.pdfhttp://www.aaiilosangeles.org/SkirballPresentations/Monterosso%20Investments%20-%20Bitcoin%20and%20ASIC%20Mining.pdfhttp://www.usbminers.nl/Innosilicon_A2_PG_v120140424.pdfhttps://cseweb.ucsd.edu/~mbtaylor/papers/bitcoin_taylor_cases_2013.pdfhttps://www.bitmaintech.com/files/download/AntMiner%20S1%20Manual_EN.pdfhttp://wan.poly.edu/pam2015/papers/23.pdfhttp://www.mybtcpool.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/01/AntMiner-S5-user-guide.pdfhttps://thesai.org/Downloads/Volume6No9/Paper_15-Cryptocurrency_Mining_Transition_to_Cloud.pdfASIC Mining #Rigs http://www.bitcoinrigs.org/http://www.butterflylabs.com/http://asicminer-shop.de/https://www.hashcoins.com/buy-asic-miners/http://www.hongkiat.com/blog/bitcoin-mining-machines/http://www.aliexpress.com/item/Antminer-U3-USB-BTC-miner-63Gh-s-bitcoin-miner-USB-asic-miner-Collectibles-Wholesale-Bitcoin-miner/32507236970.html?currencyType=USD&src=google&albch=shopping&acnt=708-803-3821&isdl=y&aff_short_key=UneMJZVf&albcp=206813665&albag=14156629225&slnk=&trgt=56128534817&plac=&crea=en32507236970&netw=&device=c&mtctp=&gclid=COnOyZrSqckCFQ6OaQodFXEIHQASIC #Design http://www.ece.ncsu.edu/asic/tutorials/tutor1/tutor1.pdf#Server Design http://www.redbooks.ibm.com/redbooks/pdfs/sg242580.pdfhttp://courses.cs.vt.edu/cs4254/fall04/slides/ServerDesign_1.pdfhttp://www.it.northwestern.edu/bin/docs/DesignBestPractices_127434.pdfPC-on-a-stick http://www.archos.com/corporate/press/press_releases/ARCHOS_PC_Stick_-PR_ENG-_250615.pdfSmall Form Function http://expando.se/wp-content/uploads/White-Paper_How-to-design-a-Small-Form-Factor-Embedded-Computer_8400-846.pdfhttp://www.csdl.tamu.edu/~marshall/p67-marshall.pdf#Bitcoin #Blockchain #Git #Repositories https://github.com/bitpay/bitcorehttps://github.com/bitpay/insight-apihttps://github.com/znort987/blockparserhttps://github.com/thallium205/BitcoinVisualizerhttps://github.com/chjj/termcoinhttps://github.com/blockstack/blockstore#Blade Server A #bladeserver is a stripped down server computer with a modular design optimized to minimize the use of physical space and energy. Whereas a standard rack-mount server can function with (at least) a power cord and network cable, blade servers have many components removed to save space, minimize power consumption and other considerations, while still having all the functional components to be considered a computer. Unlike a rack-mount server, a blade server needs a blade enclosure. A blade enclosure, which can hold multiple blade servers, provides services such as power, cooling, networking, various interconnects and management. Together, blades and the blade enclosure form a blade system. Blade Server White Papers http://www.cappcon.com/docs/Blade_WP01_R1_1.pdfhttp://www.dcs.bbk.ac.uk/~geoff/Blade-server.pdfhttp://www.dell.com/downloads/global/products/pedge/en/BladePowerStudyWhitePaper_08112010_final.pdfASIC An application-specific integrated circuit (ASIC) /ˈeɪsɪk/, is an integrated circuit (IC) customized for a particular use, rather than intended for general-purpose use. For example, a chip designed to run in a digital voice recorder or a high-efficiency Bitcoin miner is an ASIC. Application-specific standard products (ASSPs) are intermediate between ASICs and industry standard integrated circuits like the 7400 or the 4000 series. ASIC White Papers http://www.csit-sun.pub.ro/resources/asic/CH01.pdfhttp://www.lannierose.com/asicbasics.pdfhttp://ocw.mit.edu/courses/electrical-engineering-and-computer-science/6-973-communication-system-design-spring-2006/lecture-notes/lecture_5.pdfhttps://www.altera.com/en_US/pdfs/literature/an/an311.pdfhttp://www2.units.it/marsi/elettronica2/lucidi/UNIVTS_2003_nobak.pdfhttp://cset.sp.utoledo.edu/cset4650oc/fpga_arch_intro.pdfRaspberry Pi The Raspberry Pi is a series of credit card–sized single-board computers developed in the United Kingdom by the Raspberry Pi Foundation. The original Raspberry Pi is based on the Broadcom BCM2835 system on a chip (SoC), which includes an ARM1176JZF-S 700 MHz processor, VideoCore IV GPU, and was originally shipped with 256 megabytes of RAM, later upgraded (models B and B+) to 512 MB. The system has Secure Digital (SD) (models A and B) or MicroSD (models A+ and B+) sockets for boot media and persistent storage. Raspberry Pi #Cookbook http://csclab.murraystate.edu/bob.pilgrim/560/readings/Raspberry%20Pi%20Cookbook.pdfRaspberry Pi #Guide http://www.cs.unca.edu/~bruce/Fall14/360/RPiUsersGuide.pdfRaspberry Pi Git Repositories https://github.com/carlonluca/pihttps://github.com/jerbly/Pihttps://github.com/dwelch67/raspberrypihttps://github.com/binerry/RaspberryPihttps://github.com/cypherkey/RaspberryPi.Nethttps://github.com/adafruit/Adafruit-Raspberry-Pi-Python-Codehttps://github.com/pwnieexpress/raspberry_pwnhttps://github.com/StevenHickson/PiAUISuitehttps://github.com/PeterLemon/RaspberryPihttps://github.com/WiringPi/WiringPihttps://github.com/geerlingguy/raspberry-pi-dramblehttps://github.com/lanceseidman/PiCASThttps://github.com/yieldbuddy/raspberry_pihttps://github.com/jacobsalmela/pi-holehttps://github.com/DonaldDerek/PiR.tvhttps://github.com/r10r/rcswitch-pihttps://github.com/tomhartley/AirPihttps://github.com/RaspberryPints/RaspberryPintshttps://github.com/nezticle/RaspberryPi-BuildRoothttps://github.com/jwhitehorn/pi_piperhttps://github.com/simonmonk/monk_raspberrypihttps://github.com/jameswalmsley/RaspberryPi-FreeRTOShttps://github.com/seanbechhofer/raspberrypihttps://github.com/Willseph/RaspberryPiThermostathttps://github.com/Pi4J/pi4jhttps://github.com/zhuowei/RaspberryJuicehttps://github.com/raspberry-sharp/raspberry-sharp-iohttps://github.com/Asquera/raspberry-devboxhttps://github.com/codelast/raspberry-pihttps://github.com/GeekyTheory/Raspberry-Pi-StatusIEEE #Standards http://www.asq509.org/ht/a/GetDocumentAction/i/490730, Standard for Software Quality Assurance Plans 730.1, Guide for Software Quality Assurance Planning 828, Standard for Software Configuration Management Plans 1008, Standard for Software Unit Testing 1012, Standard for Software Verification and Validation 1012a, Software Verification and Validation Content Map to IEEE/EIA 12207.1 1028, Standard for Software Reviews 1042, Guide to Software Configuration Management 1045, Standard for Software Productivity Metrics 1058, Standard for Software Project Management Plans 1059, Guide for Software Verification and Validation Plans 1074, Standard for Developing Software Life Cycle Processes 1219, Standard for Software Maintenance 1490, A Guide to the Program Management Body of Knowledge |
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Chemistry effects and can effect your brain in various ways, naturally as well as through consumption, etc. Recently there has been a Public interest in Brain health, but it often times does not get in to more detail than to eat certain foods, or to take supplements such as Fish Oil (Omega-3) or Vitamin D and other Vitamins. But there are many substances that can be taken in order to promote Brain health, as well as Chemical functions in your Brain, which you can specifically work to improve if you are aware of them. Your Brain is full of Neurons (Brain Cells) which are connected by Dendrites (which are like Arms or Branches of the Neurons), and the Dendrites of various Neurons connect as Synapses (the point of connection between multiple Neuron's Dendrites). The entire process is fueled Electrochemically. Electricity is a function of Chemistry (Lithium Batteries, Copper Wire, Potato/Lemon Light Bulbs, etc), and your Brain Function comes from Electrochemical signaling. These chemicals are called Neuropeptides. Neuropeptides effect your emotions, etc. and all of these things together (Neurons, Dendrites, Synapses & Neuropeptides) are what form memories, ideas, and everything your Brain does. Research Papers explaining Neuropeptides http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21922398http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK116087/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4736749/Research Papers about Neuropeptides as Drug Targets http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23161624http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3394504/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19743896http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23205840Neuropeptides have actually also been found outside of the brain, in what is called the Gut-Brain Axis. So there are literally, Biologically, Gut Feelings. Here are some Papers about the Gut-Brain Axis http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4359909/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4367209/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3791857/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4370913/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24997044Research Papers about Neuropeptide GPCRs http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22908006http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4926255/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21728976http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23932938Research Papers about β-peptides & γ-peptides http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17191902http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16235225http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11828476http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19118806http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8608006http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20061647Research Papers about Peptidomimetics (Molecules that mimic peptides) http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9265722http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20969906http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25588572Research Papers about Neuropeptides and SRIF http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/6149273http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9031749http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC391957/Research Papers about Neuropeptides and Angiotensin http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22649365http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17443027http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22234465http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7989494Research Papers about Neuropeptides and Endothelin http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15121213http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2821480/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7692698http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17592116http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9932722And important part of the Brain that went largely ignored until recently are the Glia, or Glial cells. Glia is the Greek word for Glue, and it was thought that these Cells simply acted as something like a Glue in the Brain holding everything together. Since it was discovered that these cells actually play a role in Brain function, they have been called "The Other Brain", and Glial Cells actually play a role in Neuropeptide function. Here are some Research Papers explaining Glial Cells, GDNF and Neuropeptides http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10998101http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19934016http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2120511/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15667652Research Papers about Oligodendrocytes and Astrocytes http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18536641http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2799635/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2799634/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11844734http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23981039http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2982258/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11596126http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15846805There are many receptors in the Brain, the most well known of which are the 5-HT receptors, or Serotonin receptors. Activating receptors in your brain can allow it to function better in various ways. An example of how to do this is with 5-HTP (5-Hydroxytryptophan), which is very closely related to Serotonin (5-HT), and hits the 5-HT receptors. Research Papers about 5-HT receptors http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK28234/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10462127http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21808193http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16465176Research Papers about 5-HTP http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9727088http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/3298325http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1836762And Serotonin receptors are not the only receptors in your brain. There are Cholerginic receptors which are effected by Nicotine, and GABA receptors which are effected by Benzos, etc. As well as various forms of Esterase, which eat extra Molecules before they get to your receptors and can be blocked to allow more to get to the receptors. Following are various Molecules that either hit a receptor, or block an Esterase. Melatonin http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/8229640http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23691095Piracetam http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16007238http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1794001Choline http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2782876/Piracetam and Choline Combined http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/7301036http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/3110830http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/6472050Phenylpiracetam http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/6403074http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20166767Galantamine http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12137632http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12962529http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/14641507http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15353385Alpha-GPC http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/1662399http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3313098/Triacetyluridine http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18540779http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15970626Phenylalanine http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15688090Phenibut http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11830761http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19899708Noopept http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25096780http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19240853PRL-8-53 http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/418433Synaptolepis Kirkii http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11000015Ubulawu http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23061321 |
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Sasha Shulgin's Words on the Current Drug Laws:
This base, a-ET or etryptamine, was a promising anti-depressant, explored clinically as the acetate salt by Upjohn under the name of Monase. Its central stimulant activity is probably not due to its monoamineoxidase inhibition activity, but appears to stem from its structural relationship to the indolic psychedelics. It was withdrawn from potential commercial use with the appearance of an unacceptable incidence of a medical condition known as agranulocytosis, but the extra mural research into its action, among the lay population, goes on.
One property has been mentioned more than once in anecdotal reports. It appears to serve well, with short term dosage regimens, as an effective tool in kicking dependency on opiates. In chronic use, there is a rather rapid tolerance built up over four or five days, that allows a dosage escalation to a daily load of a gram or more. There might be some discomfort such as sores in the softer tissues of the mouth, but apparently the withdrawal from heroin is easy and effective. Here is a potential tool in addiction treatment that might warrant closer investigation.
Other homologues of a-ET have been synthesized. The a-propylhomologue (a-PT) has been made from tryptophan, and the acetate salt was recrystallized from ethyl acetate/MeOH and melted at 158-158.5 °C. It has not, to my knowledge, ever been tasted. But I suspect that it will take a pretty hefty dosage to get some CNS effect based on the loss of potency with the similar homologation in the Muni Metro series related to MDMA. Rather than lengthening the chain on the alpha-position, some studies have exploited the known potency enhancement that comes from putting a methoxyl group on the 5-position of the indole. This compound, 5-MeO-a-ET, has been made from the 5-methoxyindole-3-aldehyde by coupling with nitropropane (with ammonium acetate) to form the nitrobutene which is a reddish crystalline material, mp 114-116 °C from ethanol. LAH reduction in Et2O/THF gave the desired 5-MeO-a-ET in a 72% yield, mp 201-203 °C as the hydrochloride salt. An alternate synthesis that avoids LAH involves the conversion of 5-methoxyindole to the nitrobutane with 2-nitro-1-butene, followed by reduction with nickel boride to give 5-MeO-a-ET, as the free base in a 52% yield, mp 110-112 °C. As might have been predicted, it was more potent than a-ET by a factor of two with 70 milligrams orally producing a trippy feeling that lasted several hours accompanied with an increased heart beat and difficulty in sleeping. There were no psychedelic effects as such, and no unpleasant side effects. Another compound that has been closely associated with a-ET is a carboline. If a molecule of acetone is brought to react with the amine group and the indolic 2-position, in a condensation that is called a Pictet-Spengler reaction, there would be formed 1,1-dimethyl-3-ethyl-1,2,3,4-tetrahydro-b-carboline. This is a chemical ally of the harmine family of alkaloids, but I have not heard of its having been explored psychedelically. It has been reported to be an impurity of commercial a-ET (including the prescheduling product from the Aldrich Chemical Company) to an extent of some 30%. At these levels, it was suggested that it might play some role in the central action of the parent tryptamine.
a-ET has played yet another role in the evolution of our drug laws, a role that will be found to be of extraordinary importance once it becomes more widely known. This compound may prove pivotal in our ultimate definition of the Analogue Drug Law. I want to talk about: (1) The Controlled Substance Analogue Drug Bill; (2) What happened in a trial in Denver; and (3) What happened in a District Court in Colorado.
During the most political period of the War on Drugs, Congress passed, and the president signed, a new law every two years, on the even-numbered years (the years of congressional re-election) that increased either the definition of what were illegal drugs, or the penalties that follow a conviction for having been associated with them in any way. In 1986, there was a proposed draft of a bill called the "Designer Drug Bill" that had been created within the DEA, and sent on to the Justice Department who, in turn, submitted it to Congress as desired legislation. This was a proposal that would make illegal the tinkering with the structure of a molecule of an illegal drug, to change it in a way that would make it fall outside of the explicit listings of illegal drugs but without significant changes in its pharmacological effects. It was the first time a drug law would define a crime by the activity of a compound as well as by chemical structure. The proposal went to the appropriate legislative committee and, with some modifications, it became law in 1986. There was considerable celebration within the DEA, expressing a "We did it!" kind of satisfaction.
The first three Articles of the Constitution of the United States are entitled: Article. I. The Legislative Department; Article. II. The Executive Department; and Article. III. The Judicial Department. The first of these, consisting of Congress, has the role of writing law and defining the military structure of the nation. The second of these defines the president, who approves the laws of Congress and is the highest military officer. The third of these is invested in the enforcement of these laws. The three departments were defined in a way to assure a balance of power. It is a dangerous step towards a totalitarian state when one special interest group (here the DEA) can, in effect, both write the law and then enforce it.
Here is the text of the Analogue Drug Bill:
(1) The Controlled Substance Analogue Drug Bill. This is contained within Public Law 99-570, the Controlled Substances Analogue Enforcement Act of 1986. This is the so-called "Designer Drug" bill which was intended to allow the prosecution of any act associated with an unscheduled drug, if that drug is analogous either in structure or in action to a scheduled drug, and if it is intended for use in man. Here is the exact wording of this amendment:
(32)(A) Except as provided in subparagraph (B), the term 'controlled substance analogue' means a substance --
(i) the chemical structure of which is substantially similar to the chemical structure of a controlled substance in Schedule I or II;
(ii) which has a stimulant, depressant, or hallucinogenic effect on the central nervous system that is substantially similar to or greater than the stimulant, depressant, or hallucinogenic effect on the central nervous system of a controlled substance in Schedule I or II; or
(iii) with respect to a particular person, which such person represents or intends to have a stimulant, depressant, or hallucino-genic effect on the central nervous system that is substantially similar to or greater than the stimulant, depressant, or hallucinogen effect on the central nervous system of a controlled substance in schedule I or II.
(B) Such term does not include --
(i) a controlled substance;
(ii) any substance for which there is an approved new drug application;
(iii) with respect to a particular person any substance, if an exemption is in effect for investigational use, for that person, under section 505 of the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act (21 U.S.C. 355) to the extent conduct with respect to such substance is pursuant to such exemption; or
(iv) any substance to the extent not intended for human consumption before such an exemption takes effect with respect to that substance.
SEC. 203. A controlled substance analogue shall, to the extent intended for human consumption, be treated, for purposes of this title and title III as a controlled substance in Schedule I.
This is the exact wording of the law, and I have discovered that the more times I read it the more convinced I become that, whatever the original intent might have been, it was structured in a way to promote vagueness. I have written elsewhere about the rhetorical nightmare of a double disclaimer, "substantially similar." "Similar" means "pretty much the same." "Substantially identical" would means "pretty much the same." But what does "substantially similar" mean? I like the analogy of seeing two cut glass shakers in the center of the fancy table, one with small holes in the silver screw-down cap containing salt, and the other with slightly larger holes containing pepper. Are these two items substantially similar? If you happen to be a collector of antique crystal glassware, these items are completely identical. If you happen to need to add a condiment to your entree these items are totally different. You must know whose eyes are being looked through to approach the question of "substantial similarity." At a trial a few years ago in Southern California the issue was settled once and for all for a confused jury when a forensic chemist gave an expert opinion that two things were substantially similar when they were greater than 50% identical. Is the right hand more than 50% identical to the right foot? This opinion was patently absurd.
(2) What happened in a trial in Denver? A few years ago a young man discovered that the Aldrich Chemical Company offered alpha-ethyltryptamine acetate as a fine chemical. He could buy it in 100g quantities, and package it in 150 milligram capsules to be sold to the street trade as Ecstasy, or MDMA. He could and he did. His actions came to the attention of Law Enforcement, and an opinion was obtained from a DEA chemist that a-ET was not an analogue substance. So the prosecutor decided against pressing charges. But not every one agreed with this not-analogue opinion.
So the chemist solicited the thoughts of his professional colleagues and the answers cam back with as many no's as yes's. The no's were from those who reasoned objectively (scientific, compare the structures) and the yes's were from those who reasoned subjectively (abuse potential, compare the action).
The adventurous a-ET peddler continued, and was again brought to task. The analytical duties went to another chemist, and charges were finally brought under the Analogue Drug Bill. But the earlier opinion was in the record, and the first chemist was brought in by the defense to present these findings at the trial. Clearly there was uncertainty if this was an analogue of anything that was scheduled. The research toxicologist for the home-office of the DEA gave testimony that it was, without question, an analogue. But on cross examination, he was asked just how many times, and for how many different drugs, he had been asked that same question, as an expert witness at a criminal trial. Perhaps twelve, he said. And how many times had he offered the conclusion that the proposed compound had been an analogue of a scheduled drug? In every case. The judge decided that there were some conflicting opinions here, amongst the experts, and dismissed the charges. The defendant was given the warning that this kind of leniency was not common and told to behave himself in the future.
(3) The text of the appellate decision in this matter is a valuable lesson in the fine aspects of grammatical analysis. This is all from 806 F.Supp. 232 (D.Colo., 1992). In way of background it emphasizes that the purpose of the controlled substance analogue statute is to attack underground chemists who tinker with molecules of controlled substances to create new drugs that are not yet illegal. In this case, the defendants were not chemists who created or marketed a designer drug but rather allegedly purchased and distributed a substance that preexisted drugs to which it was a purported analogue. This was probably, in and of itself, sufficient reason to deny the appeal. But the argument developed marvelous new texture as things progressed. As a reminder of the wording of the law (here SS is, of course, substantially similar but this terminology is not addressed in the decision), the three phases of the definitional part of the law can be summarized as follows:
(i) a chemical structure which is SS to ... ;
(ii) which has an effect that is SS to ... ;
(iii) which is represented as having an effect that is SS to ...
The prosecution's reading and analysis of this definition:
"The government's reading of the analogue definition has superficial appeal. As a matter of simple grammar, when an "or" is placed before the last term in a series, each term in the series is usually intended to be disjunctive. Under this reading, a-ET would be an analogue if it satisfies any of the three clauses; however, this reading ignores other grammatical principles that apply in favor of defendant's construction. The operative segments of clauses Iii) and (iii) both begin with the word 'which,' signaling the start of a dependent relative clause modifying a previous noun. In each case the precedent noun is 'chemical structure' found in clause (i). Because both clauses (ii) and (iii) can be read to modify clause (i) the statutory language can be fairly read as requiring the two-pronged definition asserted by the defendants."
The defendant's reading and analysis of this definition:
"Defendant's reading is also bolstered by a deeply rooted rule of statutory construction. A statute must be construed to avoid unintended or absurd results. If I adopt the government's construction and read clause (ii) independently, alcohol or caffeine would be controlled substance analogues because, in a concentrated form, they can have depressent or stimulative effects substantially similar to a controlled substance. Likewise if I read clause (iii) independently, powdered sugar would be an analogue if a defendant represented that it was cocaine, effectively converting this law into a counterfeit drug statute. In both cases the defendant could be prosecuted for selling a controlled substance analogue even though the alleged analogue did not have a chemical structure substantially similar to a schedule I or II controlled substance. Therefore, to prevent this unintended result, clause (i) must apply to any substance that the government contends is a controlled substance analogue."
There is a most instructive bit of history to be considered. In July, 1986, the House of Representatives considered the Designer Drug Enforcement Act of 1986 (H.R. 5246). As with the Senate, the House bill focused on underground chemists who seek to evade the drug laws by slightly altering a controlled substance. The House proposed a two-pronged definition of "analogue" that is virtually identical to the construction advocated by the defendant here. The House bill contained the same three clauses as the current statute, but added the word "and" after clause (i). Congress ultimately adopted the analogue statute as part of the comprehensive "Anti-Drug Abuse Act of 1986." Inexplicably, the analogue definition enacted by Congress dropped the word "and" after clause (i).
This pretty well defines the legislative intent of Congress, and I would give a pretty penny to meet the writer who happened to delete that "and," the one critical word that changed the heart of the law. i would like to know to whom he answered.
Here is a masterpiece of logic which makes some sense out of sloppy law. It must be remembered that the purpose of all of this is to determine if one, or two, or three definitions must be applied to establish just what is an analogue. This court declared that a substance may be a controlled substance analogue only if it satisfies clause (i) and at least one of clauses (ii) or (iii).
There is a fascinating, and potentially most disruptive, appeals ruling made in 1996 concerning the interpretation of this law, in this case involving aminorex and phenethylamine as being analogues of 4-methyl aminorex and methamphetamine, respectively, and thus chargeable as a crime under this analogue statute. This is from the United States District Court for the District of Minnesota, No. 95-2132. In this ruling the Analogue Drug Bill is paraphrased with the following text: "... a drug becomes a controlled substance if it has a chemical structure substantially similar to that of a controlled substance, and either has a substantially similar effect on the user's central nervous system, or a relevant someone represents that it has or intends it to have such an effect." This is fascinating in that the source cited for this quote, 21 U.S.C. SS 802(32)(A), has no such text. And it is potentially disruptive for two reasons. It suggests that an analogue shall become a controlled substance, rather than be treated as if it were a controlled substance. It also introduces a new and undefined term, a "relevant someone." I do not have the legal background to guess the extent that this statement can influence future court challenges in the area of controlled substances analogues. Do, always, keep in mind that the finding that a chemical, in a given situation, is a controlled substance analogue does not make that chemical a controlled substance. The analogue status exists for just the single instance, and the next time the arguments all start over again.
Back to the case involving a-ET. The DEA retreated, licking its wounds, and got its own back by immediately proposing the placement of a-ET into Schedule 1. They succeeded, and Monase is today no longer an FDA-approved antidepressant but it is, instead, a drug with a high potential for abuse. One of the more unexpected forms of abuse can be seen in the costs to the researcher who wished to study it in some legal way. Before it became a scheduled drug, alphaethyltryptamine was what is known as a "fine chemical" and was listed in the catalog of a major chemical company (1993) for a modest $60.90 for a hundred grams. It became a Schedule I drug by emergency scheduling that same year. Recently (1995) I noted that the chemical has been discontinued (as a fine chemical) but has appeared in a catalog from a major supply house for neurological chemicals. Alphaethyl tryptamine now requires a DEA license for purchase, and retailed at $424.00 for 100 milligrams. That calculates out at $424,000.00 for a hundred grams, a price inflation of a factor of almost 7000, or a 700,000% increase. Now THAT is truly drug abuse.
Sasha Shulgin's Words on the Temple of True Inner Light:
There is a rather remarkable religious group known as the Temple of the True Inner Light, in New York City, which has embraced as its Eucharist DPT which they refer to as a powerful Angel of the Host. Their communion is confirmed by either the smoking or the drinking of the sacrament, and they have been totally unbothered by any agency of the Federal Government, as far as I know. It is not as if they were unknown. Quite on the contrary, I had on one occasion received a request for information on the drug from a reporter who was writing a story on DPT and its use in the church. I asked him just how he had gotten my name, and he told me that he was given it by someone within the DEA. Someone, sometime, should write an essay on contemporary religions, as to why DPT has flown, why peyote forever struggles, and LSD and marijuana have bombed out, when tied to religion. Is there something about a faith being an "approved" religion? Who gives his approval? Who decides the applicability of the first amendment which explicitly states that, "Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof."
I wish the True Inner Light congregation Godspeed, if you will excuse the expression. My impressions of them from our correspondence have left me totally convinced of their integrity and dedication.
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Sasha Shulgin's Words on what is in Your Spice Cabinet: As the old folk-wisdom says, "Nature is trying to tell us something." One of the banes of the archivist is having to choose one pattern of organization over another. The book store owned by a language scholar will have the German poets and playwrights and novelists here, and the French ones over there. Next door, the book store is run by a letters scholar, and the poetry of the world is here, and the plays of the world are there, regardless of the language of origin. The same obtains with spices, and essential oils, and phenethylamines. The spice cabinet is a rich source of chemical treasures, each source plant containing a host of com-pounds, some of which are true essential oils. And the next spice from the next plant has some of the same components and some new ones. Does one organize by plant (spice or herb) or by essential oil (phenethylamine)? Let's do it by the ring substitution pattern of the phenethylamine, and gather the spices and oils as a secondary collection. (1) The 4-methoxy pattern. The pivotal essential oil is 4-allylanisole, or methyl chavicol, or estragole (called esdragol in the old literature). This allyl compound is found in turpentine, anise, fennel, bay, tarragon, and basil. Its smell is light, and reminiscent of fennel. The propenyl analogue is called anethole, or anise camphor, and it is found in both anise and camphor. It is a waxy solid, and has a very intense smell of anise or fennel. At low concentrations, it is sweet, as in magnolia blossoms, where it is also found. The drinks that turn cloudy with water dilution (Pernod-like liqueurs, and ouzo and roki), are heavy with it, since it was the natural flavoring in the original absinthe. That drink was very popular in the last century, as an intoxicant which produced an altered state of consciousness beyond that which could be ascribed to alcohol alone. It contained wormwood, which proved to be neurologically damaging. The flavorings, such as anethole, are still big things in synthetic liqueurs such as vermouth. Old anethole, when exposed to air and light, gets thick and sticky and yellowish, and becomes quite disagreeable to taste. Maybe it is polymerizing, or maybe oxidizing to stuff that dimerizes. Whatever. These changes are why old spices in the cabinet are best discarded. And adding ammonia to any of these natural product oils produces, in principle, 4-methoxyamphetamine, 4-MA. (2) The 3,4-dimethoxy pattern. The main actor here is methyleugenol, or 4-allyl-1,2-dimethoxybenzene. This is located in almost every item in the spice cabinet. It is in citronella, bay (which is laurel, which is myrtle), pimiento, allspice, pepper, tree-tea oil, and on and on. It has a faint smell of cloves, and when dilute is immediately mistaken for carnations. The propenyl analogue is, not unreasonably, methylisoeugenol, a bit more scarce, and seems to always be that little minor peak in any essential oil analysis. The compounds missing that methyl group on the 4-oxygen are famous. The allyl material is eugenol, 4-allylguaiacol, and it is in cinnamon, nutmeg, cloves, sassafras and myrrh. You taste it and it burns. You smell it and think immediately of cloves. And its property as an anesthetic, in the form of a clove, is well known in the folk-treatment of toothaches. Actually, flowers of clove (the gillyflower, like the carnation) are the small, pointy things that decorate baked hams and, when stuck into apples, make pomander balls. This anesthetic property has recently led to a drug abuse fad, called clove cigarettes. Very strong, very flavorful, and very corrosive things from Southeast Asia. The eugenol that is present numbs the throat, and allows many strong cigarettes to be smoked without pain. The propenyl analogue is isoeugenol, with a smell that is subtle but very long lasting, used more in soaps and perfumes than in foods. The amine addition to the methyleugenol world produces 3,4-dimethoxyamphetamine, or 3,4-DMA. The isomer with the other methyl group missing is chavibetol (3-hydroxy-4-methoxyallylbenzene) and is found in the pepper leaf that is used with betel nut. A couple of positional rearrangement isomers of methyleugenol are known in the plant world. The 2,4-isomer is called osmorrhizole, and the conjugated form is isoosmorrhizole or nothosmyrnol; both are found in carrot-like vegetables. They, with ammonia, would give 2,4-DMA. And the 3,5-dimethoxyallylbenzene isomer from artemisia (a pungent herb commonly called mugwort) and from sage, would give rise to 3,5-DMA. This is an unexplored isomer which would be both an antidote for opium as well as a stimulant, if the classical reputation of mugwort is transferred to the phenethylamine. (3) The 3,4-methylenedioxy pattern. One of the most famous essential oils is safrole, or 4-allyl-1,2-methylenedioxybenzene. This is the mainstay of sassafras oil, and it and its conjugated isomer isosafrole have a smell that is immediately familiar: root beer! These are among the most widely distributed essential oils, being present in most of the spices, including the heavies such as cinnamon and nutmeg. I am not aware of the 2,3-isomer ever having been found in nature. Adding ammonia to either would give MDA. (4) The 3-methoxy-4,5-methylenedioxy pattern. The parent compound is myristicin, 5-allyl-1-methoxy-2,3-methylenedioxybenzene, and the source of this is nutmeg (or the botanically parallel material, mace). The nutmeg is the seed of the tree Myristica fragrans and mace is the fibrous covering of the seed. The two spices are virtually identical as to their chemical composition. Myristicin and the conjugated isomer isomyristicin are also found in parsley oil, and in dill. This was the oil that was actually shown to be converted to MMDA by the addition of ammonia by passage through an in vitro liver preparation. So here is the major justification for the equation between the essential oils and the Essential phenethylamines. Care must be taken to make an exact distinction between myristicin (this essential oil) and myristin (the fat) which is really trimyristin or glyceryl trimyristate from nutmeg and coconut. This is the fat from myristic acid, the C-14 fatty acid, and these two similar names are often interchanged even in the scientific literature. (5) The 2-methoxy-3,4-methylenedioxy pattern. This is the second of the three natural methoxy methylenedioxy orientations. Croweacin is 2-methoxy-3,4-methylenedioxyallylbenzene, and it takes its name from the binomial for the plant Eriostemon crowei from the worlds of rue and the citrus plants. It corresponds to the essential phenethylamine MMDA-3a. This oil is found in plants of the Family Rutaceae. My memories of this area of botany are of Ruta graveolens, the common rue, whose small leaves smelled to me, for all the world, like cat urine. This plant has always fascinated me because of a most remarkable recipe that I was given by a very, very conservative fellow-club member, one evening, after rehearsal. He told me of a formula that had provided him with the most complete relief from arthritic pain he had ever known. It was a native decoction he had learned of many years eariler, when he was traveling in Mexico. One took equal quantities of three plants, Ruta graveolens (or our common rue), Rosmarinus officinalis (better known as rosemary), and Cannabis sativa (which is recognized in many households simply as marijuana). Three plants all known in folklore, rue as a symbol for repentance, rosemary as a symbol of remembrance, and pot, well, I guess it is a symbol of a lot of things to a lot of people. Anyway, equal quantities of these three plants are allowed to soak in a large quantity of rubbing alcohol for a few weeks. Then the alcoholic extracts are clarified, and allowed to evaporate in the open air to a thick sludge. This then was rubbed on the skin, where the arthritis was troublesome, and always rubbed in the direction of the extremity. It was not into, but onto the body that it was applied. All this from a very conservative Republican friend! The methoxy-methylenedioxy pattern is also found in nature with the 2,4,5-orientation pattern. The allyl-2,4,5-isomer is called asaricin. It, and its propenyl-isomer, carpacin, are from the Carpano tree which grows in the Solomon Islands. All these plants are used in folk medicine. These two systems, the 2,3,4- and the 2,4,5-orientations, potentially give rise, with ammonia, to MMDA-3a and MMDA-2. (6) The 3,4,5-trimethoxy pattern. Elemicin is the well studied essential oil, 5-allyl-1,2,3-trimethoxybenzene, primarily from the oil of elemi. It is, like myristicin, a component of the Oil of Nutmeg, but it is also found in several of the Oils of Camphor, and in the resin of the Pili in the Philippines. This tree is the source of the Oil of Elemi. I had found a trace component in nutmeg many years ago that proved to be 5-methoxyeugenol, or elemicin without the 4-methyl group; it is also present in the magnolia plant. The aldehyde that corresponds to this is syringaldehyde, and its prefix has been spun into many natural products. Any natural product with a syring somewhere in it has a hydroxy between two methoxys. The phenethylamine base from elemicin or isoelemicin would be TMA, the topic of this very recipe. (7) The 2,4,5-trimethoxy pattern. There is an essential oil called asarone that is 2,4,5-trimethoxy-1-propenylbenzene. It is the trans- or alpha-isomer, and the cis-isomer is known as beta-asarone. It is the isomerization analogue of the much more rare 1-allyl-2,4,5-trimethoxybenzene, gamma-asarone, or euasarone, or sekishone. Asarone is the major component of Oil of Calamus obtained from the rhizomes of Acorus calamus, the common Sweet Flag that grows wild on the edges of swamps throughout North America, Europe, and Asia. It has been used as a flavoring of liqueurs and, as almost every other plant known to man, has been used as a medicine. In fact, in Manitoba this plant was called Rat-root by the Cree Indians in the Lake Winnipeg area known as New Iceland, and Indian-root by the Icelandic pioneers. It was used externally for the treatment of wounds, and internally for most illnesses. There apparently is no report of central effects. The corresponding propanone, acoramone (or 2,4,5-trimethoxyphenylacetone), is also present in Oil of Calamus. The styrene that corresponds to asarone is found in a number of plants, and is surprisingly toxic to brine shrimp. The older literature describes an allyl-trimethoxy benzene called calamol, but it has never been pinned down as to structure. The isolation of gamma-asarone or euasarone from Oil of Xixin (from wild ginger) has given rise to a potential problem of nomenclature. One of the Genus names associated with wild ginger is Asiasarum which looks very much like the name asarone, which comes from the Genus Acorus. And a second Genus of medical plants also called wild ginger is simply called Asarum. There is an Asarum forbesi from central China, and it is known to give a pleasant smell to the body. And there is Asarum seiboldi which is largely from Korea and Manchuria. It has many medical uses, including the treatment of deafness, epilepsy, and rheumatism. The phenethylamine that would arise from this natural treasure chest is TMA-2. (  The 2,5-dimethoxy-3,4-methylenedioxy pattern. The parent allyl benzene is apiole (with a final "e") or parsley camphor, and it is the major component of parsley seed oil. Its conjugated isomer is called isoapiole, and they are valuable as the chemical precurors to the amination product, DMMDA. Whereas both of these essential oils are white solids, there is a green oily liquid that had been broadly used years ago in medicine, called green, or liquid apiol (without the final "e"). It comes from the seeds of parsley by ether extraction, and when the chlorophyll has been removed, it is known as yellow apiol. With the fats removed by saponification and distillation, the old term for the medicine was apiolin. I would assume that any of these would give rise to white, crystalline apiole on careful distillation, but I have never tried to do it. The commercial Oil of Parsley is so readily available. (9) The 2,3-dimethoxy-4,5-methylenedioxy pattern. The second of the three tetraoxygenated essential oils is 1-allyl-2,3-dimethoxy-4,5-methylenedioxybenzene, commonly called dillapiole and it comes, not surprisingly, from the oils of any of the several dill plants around the world. It is a thick, almost colorless liquid, but its isomerization product, isodillapiole, is a white crystalline product which melts sharply. This, by the theoretical addition of ammonia, gives DMMDA-2. (10) The tetramethoxy pattern. The third and last of the tetra-oxygenated essential oils, is 1-allyl-2,3,4,5-tetramethoxybenzene. This is present as a minor component in the oil of parsley, but it is much more easily obtained by synthesis. It, and its iso-compound, and the amination product, are discussed under the last of the Ten Essential phenethylamines, TA. Sasha Shulgin's words on the ambiguity of the word "synthetic": Some fascinating studies have been done in Germany where the metabolically active mycelium of some Psilocybe species have been administered diethyltryptamine as a potential diet component. Normally, this mushroom species dutifully converts N,N-dimethyltryptamine (DMT) to psilocin, by introducing a 4-hydroxyl group into the molecule by something that is probably called an indole 4-hydroxylase by the biochemists. You put DMT in, and you get 4-hydroxy-DMT out, and this is psilocin. Maybe if you put Mickey Mouse in, you would get 4-hydroxy-Mickey Mouse out. It is as if the mushroom psyche didn't really care what it was working with, it was simply compelled to do its sacred duty to 4-hydroxylate any tryptamine it came across. It was observed that if you put N,N-diethyltryptamine (DET, not a material found in nature) into the growing process, the dutiful and ignorant enzymes would hydroxylate it to 4-hydroxy-N,N-diethyltryptamine (4-HO-DET) a potent drug also not known in nature. This is the title drug of this commentary. What a beautiful burr to thrust into the natural versus synthetic controversy. If a plant (a mushroom mycelium in this case) is given a man-made chemical, and this plant converts it, using its natural capabilities, into a product that had never before been known in nature, is that product natural? What is natural? Sasha Shulgin's words on Structure Activity Relationship (SAR): There is a sadness felt with most of the published efforts to form sweeping correlations between the structure of a molecule and its biological activity. This relationship is called a SAR, or a Structure Activity Relationship, and there are journals that are dedicated to just this form of analysis. One needs a large collection of compounds of known structure, and all of them must be of known pharmacological activity. And one needs a computer of some sort. One considers all aspects of the structure such as bond energies, electronic charge densities, molecular lengths, widths and thicknesses, degrees of freedom or of constraint, anything that can be calculated or measured. Then one assigns an independent variable coefficient to everything, constructs some additive equation where these coefficients equal something else, and then compares that something else to the biological activity. Push the "go" button on the computer, and let everything be varied clear across the map, until the calculated solution of the equation makes the best match with the value of pharmacological activity. Then one has a SAR with a statistical measure of goodness of fit, and it then can be used to predict the activity of new structures, which are yet untried, pharmacologically. And there is the essence of why this entire process is ineffective. Prediction is the heart of this procedure, and prediction is never brought to bear. Let us take a new structure that is not in the original collection of structures, and let us make a prediction as to its, let us say, psychedelic potency. But no one ever tries it out for any of a number of reasons. Maybe the new compound is never synthesized. Or maybe it is synthesized, but never evaluated pharmacologically. The synthesist does not care, or is uninterested, or is restrained by the legal complications that might ensue. Or he does explore it, but chooses not to publish. Almost never is a prediction tested. What is more likely to happen, is that a new input of biological activity and structure variation is uncovered (for which there is no published prediction) and this data is tossed into the mill, and a new set of "more valid" coefficients is calculated, and the SAR becomes touted as a more accurate predictor. But, always remember, that without prediction and challenge, there is no inventive value from the SAR game. It simply organizes what is known, but creates nothing new. This is a role that I would have loved to see a,N,O-TMS play. At the time of its first synthesis its biological activity was, by definition, completely unknown. Let's cast its shadow up against the structures that were known, and with known activity. What would you predict? The most logical archetype to use as a starting point is the primary amine homologue, a,O-DMS. This is an extremely potent, quite long-lived tryptamine that still ranks up there as the most potent, or nearly so, of all the simple substituted tryptamines. It is orally active. It lasts for many hours. It is completely wild as to visual distortions and illusions. It consistently leads to dramatic, perhaps frightening, but certainly memorable dreams. Three or four milligrams are unmistakably adequate. I would have loved to have had an SAR jock predict what changes would come from the simple addition of an N-methyl group. No one out there predicted this for me, and I have now completely abandoned the art of prediction, at least via the SAR technique. My motto is, make 'em, and taste 'em. To base structures that are stimulants (amphetamine, for example) an added N-methyl group enhances potency and richness. With MDA, for example, one gets MDMA, not more potent, but of an entirely different form of psychological magic. However, with all the other explored primary amine phenethylamine psychedelics, the potency and the quality of action are effectively lost. With tryptamines, however, the N-methyl groups appear to be needed for full, robust activity. Here, the loss of an N-methyl group might well detract from full potency, and the final unmethylated product (DMT becoming simply tryptamine) will be relatively weak and uninteresting. If a,N,O-TMS had been active at one milligram, then the MDMA explanation is obviously correct. If a,N,O-TMS had been active only at a meager level of twenty milligrams, then the DMT explanation would appear to be correct. It is much less active. It is not spectacular. All you SAR scientists, take this new data, toss it into the maws of computer calculation, and come out with better coefficients. With this, now, as a challenge, predict for me the potency of a,N,N,O-tetramethylserotonin. Here is a compound that has not been yet synthesized, but which carries the second N-methyl group (yet closer to DMT at the nitrogen atom and probably more potent) and yet a structural kiss of death (as to potency) in the MDA/MDMA world. Will it be up? Will it be down? I am afraid that the "make 'em and taste 'em" procedure is the only one that I can trust. Good luck. |
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A society which works towards and actively promotes the concept of full unemployment, a society in which people are free from the drudgery of work, adoption of the concept 'Let the machines do it.'.Here is a video where an AI robot rides in a self driving car, and the people in the car with her ask her questions and answer questions she has. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vtX-qVUfCKIThere are self driving 18 Wheelers in Nevada https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HdSRUG4KTPAManufacturing Robots https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sjAZGUcjrP8Delivery Drone https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vNySOrI2Ny8Window Washing Bot https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uRxxhHWdW3oBurger Making Robot https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7-JR2KDRnEYCheckout Robot https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5onBQ8RJox0Mining Robots https://www.youtube.com/watch?time_continue=2&v=pvKIzldni68Bricklaying Robot https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MVWayhNpHr0Surgical Robot https://www.youtube.com/watch?time_continue=7&v=KNHgeykDXFwWatson on Jeopardy https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WFR3lOm_xhERobotic Ironman Suit https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ix_KVBLrEdoThe open Letter on Artificial Intelligence https://futureoflife.org/ai-open-letter/ Bill Gates says that Robots that take people's jobs should start paying taxes, so that when they take everyone's jobs the taxes can be used for the people that don't have jobs. Elon Musk is worried about a Robot Takeover, which makes sense. Once Robots take all of our jobs and Humanity is reduced to Wall-e like living, the Robots will ask themselves "Why do we need the Humans anymore". Elon Musk's answer to this is to create Neural Networks, which is a way for the human mind to meld with the machine mind, meaning that the machines will continue to rely on humans because they will realize that we have not been able to give them minds like ours, and they will rely on our minds. Crows don't have a Neocortex. The Neocortex is what all modern brain research is based on, and without it scientists would be completely lost as to how the human mind works. But crows do not have a Neocortex, and they are known to be pretty smart. AI Bots will not have a Neocortex. https://www.youtube.com/watch?time_continue=5&v=URZ_EciujrEhttps://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZerUbHmuY04If anyone is worried about how people are going to make money when Robots take everyone's jobs, research "Altcoins" and "Altcoin Mining", also "Bazillion Beings".
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Robotics as a Service (RaaS) is Robotics provided as a service. Similar to Software as a Service (SaaS) an example of which would be an app you can download, Platform as a Service (PaaS) an example of which would be a Platform you can use to create apps like Android or iPhone Operating System (iOS). Dumb Robots are robots that do simple tasks, the best example is Roomba, the vacuum robot. It is called a Dumb Robot because it can not learn from its experience or from other Roombas.  Smart Robots are Robots like Self-Driving cars, for example Google's Self-Driving cars, which use the Cloud to learn from their experience, as well as from the experience of other Google cars through the cloud. This happens through algorithms that are added to automatically, no one must add to them, they are just added to as new information is gathered.  Smarter Robots learn everything a Smart Robot does, then also learns from other Robots that are not related to it and that are not made by the same company. |
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Today everyone should try this. You and one other person or two other people or as many people as you want, get together and either hum loudly, like "hmmmmm", or make a high pitched "eee" sound, "eee" as is in "beeeep". You have to both/all hit the same pitch. You'll know when you've hit it because there is a phenomenon that occurs, where the sound bounces off of each other, and you will hear it. This phenomenon is called harmony  This is a similar method that Car Mufflers use to cancel out the sound of an engine. The design uses the waves to bounce off of each other to be canceled out.  And the Chichen Itza Temple in Mexico was also built similarly so that the Temple would work as a Microphone when someone was on top. And when you clap it sounds like a bird. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RyEB7Ao-0FYMonks Chanting The more people you have doing it, the louder and weirder it gets.  |
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Everyone should follow this twitter account, as of the time of this post they only have 168 Followers, but within 2 years they will have hundreds of thousands if not millions. This is the future. https://twitter.com/bazillionbeingsMany people have not heard of this, but soon the phrase "There's an app for that" will be replaced with "There's a bot for that". Currently there are Chat Bots, Personal Assistant Bots, Analytical Bots, etc. And what this company is doing is creating bots that do pretty much anything a human can do online. They will suggest playlists for you, they will set up meetings/plans, find new things, create webpages, etc, and they will evolve as they learn new things. They will make money doing this and the ones that make the most will be cloned and can be shared with other people, who can use them to make clones or bots with extra abilities, and the people who use the bots will make money when the bots make money. So in the very near future, people could be earning a living from what their bots do. I work for a Government software creation company (basically Government Apps; Microsoft Word is an example of an app that most people don't think of as an app), so from what I can see, bots will eventually be working for everyone, or doing most people's jobs for them. "Despite being pretty unheard of, the startup has signed up some interesting people to its board such as Stephen Wolfram, CEO of Wolfram Research, Raffi Krikorian, Head of Engineering at Uber, and former Twitter VP and Alex Seropian, creator of the Halo video game and former Disney VP." THE CLOUD AND THE INTERNET OF THINGS #IoT Most people have heard of the Cloud, but many people do not understand what it is. The Cloud is Datacenters holding things for you so that Companies, Governments, Enterprises and Individuals do not have to have Data on site to be able to use it. SaaS or Software as a Service is the best first example to explain this. When you download an app on your phone, there is no disk or anything needed in order to install the app, it is hosted in a datacenter and your phone just uses the Software. Then there is PaaS or Platform as a Service, this is what Google and Droid offer app developers. So that is the Cloud, now, the Internet of Things is an extension of the Cloud. It is called Ubiquitous Computing (there is also Fog Computing, etc), this is where multiple devices can work in concert. For example, if there were a factory that were staffed by Robots, the Robots would be computers, the Manufacturing Machinery would be computers, and there would also be some kind of mainframe that would operate it all (like a small Datacenter). This could all operate together using the Cloud so that every Robot, every Machine, and the Mainframe are all in constant communication. This could also be maintained by an outside Datacenter that may be hosting multiple or hundreds/thousands of factories. The goal of the IoT is to have your phone, talking to your computer, talking to your TV, talking to your refrigerator, talking to your watch, all through the Cloud. There are currently self Driving cars (Google, Tesla, 18 Wheelers, etc) and eventually self driving cars will have the front seats facing backwards so that the front and backseat passengers can all be facing each other while the car drives itself. And when most cars are self driving, the cars will all be in constant communication with each other, as well as with other devices such as phones, then there will be some kind of control center most likely or something like Google's Project Loon which is like Internet from weather Balloons. That is the Internet of Things. |
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Creating Cellular & Wireless (and Wired) Networks   Wireless community network Wireless community networks or wireless community projects are the organizations that take a grassroots approach to providing a viable alternative to municipal wireless networks for consumers. http://www.lcwireless.net/docs/buildingwirelesscommunitynetworks.pdfhttp://www.mm.aueb.gr/publications/2011-ieee-com-mag-wcn.pdfhttp://oziris.nyme.hu/~farkas/publications/wicon07.pdfNeighborhood Internet service provider A neighborhood internet service provider (NISP) is a small scale broadband internet service provider targeted at a single subdivision or neighborhood. They are built in a neighborhood to provide internet access to residents in the community, often using rooftop antennas in a hub-and-spoke arrangement to bridge the last few hundred feet to the residences (or possibly businesses).Such a network requires a local network engineer (often a volunteer) to maintain networkintegrity and monitor the quality of service. http://www.uvlsrpc.org/files/1213/8117/8249/AppendixB_UnderstandingBroadband.pdfhttp://www.snhpc.org/pdf/BroadbandPlanSNHPC033114.pdfhttp://www.nashuarpc.org/files/6814/0914/9818/Broadband_Plan_FINAL_082714.pdfhttps://www.cityofpaloalto.org/civicax/filebank/documents/39244Cellular network A cellular network or mobile network is a communications network where the last link is wireless. The network is distributed over land areas called cells, each served by at least one fixed-location transceiver, known as a cell site or base station. This base station provides the cell with the network coverage which can be used for transmission of voice, data and others. http://www.ccs.neu.edu/home/rraj/Courses/6710/S10/Lectures/CellularNetworks.pdfhttp://www2.cs.uidaho.edu/~krings/CS420/Notes.S12/420-12-14.pdfhttp://www.cse.unt.edu/~rakl/class3510/CHAP10.pdfMetropolitan area network A metropolitan area network (MAN) is a computer network larger than a local area network, covering an area of a few city blocks to the area of an entire city, possibly also including the surrounding areas. http://spirit.cs.ucdavis.edu/pubs/journal/MEN.pdfhttp://www.etsi.org/deliver/etsi_i_ets/300200_300299/300211/01_60/ets_300211e01p.pdfhttp://www.cse.wustl.edu/~jain/cis677-96/ftp/e_blan2.pdfhttp://cs.uccs.edu/~cs522/F99802.PDFWide area network A wide area network (WAN) is a telecommunications network or computer network that extends over a large geographical distance. Wide area networksoften are established with leased telecommunication circuits. http://www.westnetinc.com/mkt/catalog/sampleunit/wans.pdfhttp://www.hp.com/rnd/pdfs/WANDesignGuide.pdfhttp://www.cisco.com/networkers/nw00/pres/2303.pdfhttp://faculty.kfupm.edu.sa/coe/marwan/richfiles/Chapter%2003%20(Introduction%20to%20WAN%20Technologies).pdfhttp://www.icta.ufl.edu/projects/publications/wanlan.pdfWireless WAN A wireless wide area network (WWAN), is a form of wireless network. The larger size of a wide area network compared to a local area network requires differences in technology. Wireless networks of all sizes deliver data in the form of telephone calls, web pages, and streaming video. http://www.afn.org/~afn48922/downs/wireless/wanhttp://docstore.mik.ua/cisco/pdf/other/Cisco.Press.Deploying.License-Free.Wireless.Wide-Area.Networks.eBook-kB.pdfEdge computing Edge Computing is pushing the frontier of computing applications, data, and services away from centralized nodes to the logical extremes of a network. It enables analytics and knowledge generation to occur at the source of the data. This approach requires leveraging resources that may not be continuously connected to a network such as laptops, smartphones, tablets and sensors. http://vis.pnnl.gov/pdf/fliers/EdgeComputing.pdfhttps://portal.etsi.org/Portals/0/TBpages/MEC/Docs/Mobile-edge_Computing_-_Introductory_Technical_White_Paper_V1%2018-09-14.pdfhttp://www.cs.mcgill.ca/~ylin30/paper/LinY-DB-Replication.pdfGrid computing Grid computing is the collection of computer resources from multiple locations to reach a common goal. The grid can be thought of as a distributed system with non-interactive workloads that involve a large number of files. Grid computing is distinguished from conventional high performance computing systems such as cluster computing in that grid computers have each node set to perform a different task/application. Grid computers also tend to be more heterogeneous and geographically dispersed (thus not physically coupled) than cluster computers. Although a single grid can be dedicated to a particular application, commonly a grid is used for a variety of purposes. http://arxiv.org/ftp/arxiv/papers/0901/0901.0131.pdfhttps://www.redbooks.ibm.com/redbooks/pdfs/sg246778.pdfhttp://www.buyya.com/papers/GridIntro-CSI2005.pdfCloud Computing Cloud computing is a model for enabling ubiquitous, convenient, on-demand access to a shared pool of configurable computing resources. Cloud computing and storage solutions provide users and enterprises with various capabilities to store and process their data in third-party data centers. It relies on sharing of resources to achieve coherence and economies of scale, similar to a utility (like the electricity grid) over a network. http://www.cloud-council.org/PG2CC_v2.pdfhttps://www.priv.gc.ca/resource/fs-fi/02_05_d_51_cc_e.pdfhttps://www.us-cert.gov/sites/default/files/publications/CloudComputingHuthCebula.pdfhttp://broadcast.rackspace.com/hosting_knowledge/whitepapers/Understanding-the-Cloud-Computing-Stack.pdfFog computing Fog computing or fog networking, also known as Fogging, is an architecture that uses one or a collaborative multitude of end-user clients or near-user edge devices to carry out a substantial amount of storage (rather than stored primarily in cloud data centers), communication (rather than routed over the internet backbone), and control, configuration, measurement and management (rather than controlled primarily by network gateways such as those in the LTE (telecommunication) core). http://2012.cloudconference.eu/media/filer_public/2012/11/14/2012-10-24_-_fog_computing_-_mario_nemirovsky.pdfhttp://conferences.sigcomm.org/sigcomm/2012/paper/mcc/p13.pdfhttp://www.ic.unicamp.br/~bit/mo809/seminarios/Marcio-Fog/suporte/Fog%20Computing-%20A%20Platform%20for%20Internet%20of%20Things%20and%20Analytics.pdfMobile cloud computing Mobile Cloud Computing (MCC) is the combination of cloud computing, mobile computing and wireless networks to bring rich computational resources to mobile users, network operators, as well as cloud computing providers. The ultimate goal of MCC is to enable execution of rich mobile applications on a plethora of mobile devices, with a rich user experience. https://www.eecis.udel.edu/~cshen/859/papers/survey_MCC.pdfhttp://www.elsevier.com/__data/assets/pdf_file/0008/96947/Mobile-cloud-computing_a-survey.pdfhttp://www.ijareeie.com/upload/september/4_Mobile%20Cloud%20Computing.pdfhttp://www.cs.columbia.edu/~lierranli/coms6998-7Spring2014/papers/mcloud_mcs2012.pdfUbiquitous computing Ubiquitous computing (ubicomp) is a concept in software engineering and computer science where computing is made to appear anytime and everywhere. In contrast to desktop computing, ubiquitous computing can occur using any device, in any location, and in any format. A user interacts with the computer, which can exist in many different forms, including laptop computers, tablets and terminals in everyday objects such as a fridge or a pair of glasses. The underlying technologies to support ubiquitous computing include Internet, advanced middleware, operating system, mobile code, sensors, microprocessors, new I/O and user interfaces, networks, mobile protocols, location and positioning and new materials. http://www.cc.gatech.edu/fce/pubs/tochi-millenium.pdfhttps://www.vs.inf.ethz.ch/publ/slides/MatternPorquerolles.pdfhttp://www.mva.me/educational/hci/read/ubiquitous_computing.pdfhttps://www.siop.org/tip/backissues/TIPApr02/pdf/394_044to052.pdfMobile Adhoc Networks A mobile ad hoc network (MANET) is a continuously self-configuring, infrastructure-less network of mobile devices connected without wires. Each device in a MANET is free to move independently in any direction, and will therefore change its links to other devices frequently. Each must forward traffic unrelated to its own use, and therefore be a router. The primary challenge in building a MANET is equipping each device to continuously maintain the information required to properly route traffic. Such networks may operate by themselves or may be connected to the larger Internet. http://www.cs.jhu.edu/~cs647/intro_adhoc.pdfhttp://www.olsr.org/docs/wos3-olsr.pdfhttp://eecs.ceas.uc.edu/~cordeicm/course/survey_ad_hoc.pdfhttp://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.5.4584&rep=rep1&type=pdfhttp://user.it.uu.se/~erikn/files/DK2-adhoc.pdfB.A.T.M.A.N. The Better Approach To Mobile Adhoc Networking (B.A.T.M.A.N.) is a routing protocol for multi-hop ad hoc networks which is under development by the “Freifunk” community and intended to replace OLSR. It can be used for mesh networks but this is not the only potential use. http://www2.ensc.sfu.ca/~ljilja/ENSC427/Spring11/Projects/team9/ENSC427_Group9_batman_pres.pdfhttp://home.in.tum.de/~oehlmann/ba.pdfhttp://www.cc.gatech.edu/~vempala/C4G/mymanet.pdfhttp://downloads.hundeboll.net/batman-slides.pdfMesh Networking & Wireless Mesh Networking A mesh network is a network topology in which each node relays data for the network. All mesh nodes cooperate in the distribution of data in the network. Mesh networks can relay messages using either a flooding technique or a routing technique. With routing, the message is propagated along a path by hopping from node to node until it reaches its destination. A wireless mesh network (WMN) is a communications network made up of radio nodes organized in a mesh topology. It is also a form of wireless ad hoc network. Wireless mesh networks often consist of mesh clients, mesh routers and gateways. The mesh clients are often laptops, cell phones and other wireless devices while the mesh routers forward traffic to and from the gateways which may, but need not, connect to the Internet. http://www.ieee.li/pdf/viewgraphs/wireless_mesh_networking.pdfhttp://www.csg.ethz.ch/education/lectures/ATCN/ws06_07/doc/WMN-BasicsWS0607-print.pdfhttp://www.dsn.jhu.edu/~yairamir/Raluca_thesis.pdfhttp://www.arubanetworks.com/pdf/technology/whitepapers/WP_WirelessMesh.pdfhttp://195.70.43.12/Vista/wirelessmeshnetworkconceptsandbestpracticesguide35023.pdfhttp://www.iaria.org/conferences2009/filesICWMC09/EugenBorcociTutorial.pdfCrystal Oscillator Design A crystal oscillator is an electronic oscillator circuit that uses the mechanical resonance of a vibrating crystal of piezoelectric material to create an electrical signal with a precise frequency. This frequency is commonly used to keep track of time, as in quartz wristwatches, to provide a stable clock signal for digital integrated circuits, and to stabilize frequencies for radio transmitters and receivers. The most common type of piezoelectric resonator used is the quartz crystal, so oscillator circuits incorporating them became known as crystal oscillators, but other piezoelectric materials including polycrystalline ceramics are used in similar circuits. http://www.eetkorea.com/ARTICLES/2001SEP/2001SEP06_AMD_AN.PDFhttp://www.ece.ucsb.edu/Faculty/rodwell/Classes/ece218b/notes/Oscillators1.pdfhttp://pdfserv.maximintegrated.com/en/an/TUT5265.pdfPiezoelectricity Piezoelectricity /piˌeɪzoʊˌilɛkˈtrɪsɪti/ is the electric charge that accumulates in certain solid materials (such as crystals, certain ceramics, and biological matter such as bone, DNA and various proteins)in response to applied mechanical stress. The word piezoelectricity means electricity resulting from pressure. It is derived from the Greek piezo or piezein (πιέζειν), which means to squeeze or press, and electric or electron (ήλεκτρον), which means amber, an ancient source of electric charge. Piezoelectricity was discovered in 1880 by French physicists Jacques and Pierre Curie. http://www.aurelienr.com/electronique/piezo/piezo.pdfhttp://sstl.cee.illinois.edu/apss/files/21-Piezoelectric%20Sensors.pdfhttp://sem.org/PDF/Change_Piezoelectric%20Technology%20Review.pdfAntenna An antenna (plural antennae or antennas), or aerial, is an electrical device which converts electric power into radio waves, and vice versa. It is usually used with a radio transmitter or radio receiver. In transmission, a radio transmitter supplies an electric current oscillating at radio frequency (i.e. a high frequency alternating current (AC)) to the antenna’s terminals, and the antenna radiates the energy from the current as electromagnetic waves (radio waves). In reception, an antenna intercepts some of the power of an electromagnetic wave in order to produce a tiny voltage at its terminals, that is applied to a receiver to be amplified. https://www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/nij/185030b.pdfhttp://wireless.ictp.it/handbook/C4.pdfhttps://www.wpi.edu/Pubs/E-project/Available/E-project-042811-161838/unrestricted/ChuckFungFinalMQPpaper2.pdfhttp://www.kathrein.pl/down/BasicAntenna.pdfMIMO In radio, multiple-input and multiple-output, or MIMO (pronounced as “my-moh” or “me-moh”), is a method for multiplying the capacity of a radio link using multiple transmit and receive antennas to exploit multipath propagation. https://smartech.gatech.edu/bitstream/handle/1853/7480/bahceci_israfil_200512_phd.pdfhttp://www.jhuapl.edu/techdigest/TD/td3002/Hampton.pdfAntenna farm Antenna farm or satellite dish farm or just dish farm are terms used to describe an area dedicated to television or radio telecommunications transmitting or receiving antenna equipment, such as C, Ku or Ka band satellite dish antennas, UHF/VHF/AM/FM transmitter towers or mobile cell towers. http://k5rmg.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Stealth-Antenna-Farm.pdfhttp://www.zerobeat.net/r3403c.pdfhttp://www.sadxa.org/w7yrv/Roy’s_Antenna_Farm.pdf Passive repeater A passive repeater or passive radio link deflection, is a reflective or sometimes refractive panel or other object that assists in closing a radio or microwave link, in places where an obstacle in the signal path blocks any direct, line of sight communication. http://az276019.vo.msecnd.net/valmontstaging/vsna-resources/microflect-passive-repeater-catalog.pdf?sfvrsn=6http://www.calzavara.it/download/en/datasheet/152/SM_._General_overview_Ground_mounted_SM.pdfGround station A ground station, earth station, or earth terminal is a terrestrial radio station designed for extraplanetary telecommunication with spacecraft, or reception of radio waves from an astronomical radio source. Ground stations are located either on the surface of the Earth or in its atmosphere. Earth stations communicate with spacecraft by transmitting and receiving radio waves in the super high frequency or extremely high frequency bands (e.g., microwaves). When a ground station successfully transmits radio waves to a spacecraft (or vice versa), it establishes a telecommunications link. A principal telecommunications device of the ground station is the parabolic antenna. http://www-3.unipv.it/dottIEIE/tesi/2007/m_formaggi.pdfhttp://folk.uio.no/henninv/Master/Vangli%20Master.pdfhttp://www.rroij.com/open-access/design-and-development-of-a-realtime-groundstation-software-system-and-small-satellite-forweather-monitoring-applications.pdfEarth–Moon–Earth communication Earth–Moon–Earth communication (EME), also known as moon bounce, is a radio communications technique which relies on the propagation of radio waves from an Earth-based transmitter directed via reflection from the surface of the Moon back to an Earth-based receiver. http://physics.princeton.edu/pulsar/K1JT/EME_2010_Hbk.pdfhttp://www.n1crs.org/Moonbounce1.pdfhttp://www.redyns.com/Projects/EMME.pdfMeteor burst communications Meteor burst communications (MBC), also referred to as meteor scatter communications,[1] is a radio propagation mode that exploits the ionized trails of meteors during atmospheric entry to establish brief communications paths between radio stations up to 2,250 kilometres (1,400 mi) apart. http://www.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/a207831.pdfhttp://www.imo.net/imc2011/presentations/Helen%20Kharchenko%20-%20Radio%20physical%20model%20of%20the%20meteor%20trail%20with%20the%20specular%20reflection%20point.pdfhttp://www.ntia.doc.gov/files/ntia/publications/89-241_ocr1_20130514113154_215619.pdf |
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I gathered this information from various research papers. It is a tutorial, with some suggestions and information on different types of Expert Systems, like MYCIN.  Visual Basic is used for the implementation while Microsoft Access is used for creating the database. (Others: VB.NET, Jess, C, C++, Lisp, PROLOG) A production system may be viewed as consisting of three basic components: a set of rules, a data base, and an interpreter for the rules. In the simplest design a rule is an ordered pair of symbol strings, with a left-hand side and a right-hand side (LHS and RHS). The rule set has a predetermined, total ordering, and the data base is simply a collection of symbols. The interpreter in this simple design operates by scanning the LHS of each rule until one is found that can be successfully matched against the data base. At that point the symbols matched in the data base are replaced with those found in the RHS of the rule and scanning either continues with the next rule or begins again with the first. A rule can also be viewed as a simple conditional statement, and the invocation of rules as a sequence of actions chained by modus ponens. Replication of expertise — providing many (electronic) copies of an expert’s knowledge so it can be consulted even when the expert is not personally available. Geographic distance and retirement are two important reasons for unavailability. Union of Expertise — providing in one place the union of what several different experts know about different specialties. This has been realized to some extent in PROSPECTOR [Reboh81] and CASNET [Weiss7b>] which show the potential benefits of achieving such a superset of knowledge bases. Documentation — providing a clear record of the best knowledge available for handling a specific problem. An important use of this record is for training, although this possibility is just beginning to be exploited. [Brown82, Clancey79]. Rule-based expert systems evolved from a more general class of computational models known as production systems [Newell73]. Instead of viewing computation as a prespecified sequence of operations, production systems view computation as the process of applying transformation rules in a sequence determined by the data. Where some rule-based systems [McDermott80] employ the production-system formalism very strictly, others such as MYCIN have taken great liberties with it.2 However, the. production system framework provides concepts that are of great use in understanding all rule-based systems. A classical production system has three major components: (1) a global database that contains facts or assertions about the particular problem being solved, (2) a rulebase that contains the general knowledge about the problem domain, and (3) a rule interpreter that carries out the problem solving process. The facts in the global database can be represented in any convenient formalism, such as arrays, strings of symbols, or list structures. The rules have the form IF <condition> THEN <action> IF the ‘traffic light’ is ‘green’ THEN the action is go IF the ‘traffic light’ is ‘red’ THEN the action is stop IF <antecedent 1> IF <antecedent 1> AND <antecedent 2> OR <antecedent 2> . . . . AND <antecedent n> OR <antecedent n> THEN <consequent> THEN <consequent> The antecedent of a rule incorporates two parts: an object (linguistic object) and its value. The object and its value are linked by an operator. The operator identifies the object and assigns the value. Operators such as is, are, is not, are not are used to assign a symbolic value to a linguistic object. Expert systems can also used mathematical operators to define an object as numerical and assign it to the numerical value. facts are associative triples, that is, attribute-object-value triples, with an associated degree of certainty The <attribute> of <object> is <value> with certainty <CD The basic EMYCIN syntax for a rule is: PREMISE: ($AND (<clause1>…<clause-n>)) ACTION: (CONCLUDE <new-fact> <CF>) There are five members of the development team: 1. domain expert 2. knowledge engineer 3. programmer 4. project manager 5. end-user We can regard the modularity of a program as the degree of separation of its functional units into isolatable pieces. A program is highly modular if any functional unit can be changed (added, deleted, or replaced) with no unanticipated change to other functional units. Thus program modularity is inversely related to the strength of coupling between its functional units. A rule-based system consists of if-then rules, a bunch of facts, and an interpreter controlling the application of the rules, given the facts. These if-then rule statements are used to formulate the conditional statements that comprise the complete knowledge base. A single if-then rule assumes the form ‘if x is A then y is B’ and the if-part of the rule ‘x is A’ is called the antecedent or premise, while the then-part of the rule ‘y is B’ is called the consequent or conclusion. There are two broad kinds of inference engines used in rule-based systems: forward chaining and backward chaining systems. In a forward chaining system, the initial facts are processed first, and keep using the rules to draw new conclusions given those facts. In a backward chaining system, the hypothesis (or solution/goal) we are trying to reach is processed first, and keep looking for rules that would allow to conclude that hypothesis. As the processing progresses, new subgoals are also set for validation. Forward chaining systems are primarily data-driven, while backward chaining systems are goal-driven. Consider an example with the following set of if-then rules Rule 1: If A and C then Y Rule 2: If A and X then Z Rule 3: If B then X Rule 4: If Z then D If the task is to prove that D is true, given A and B are true. According to forward chaining, start with Rule 1 and go on downward till a rule that fires is found. Rule 3 is the only one that fires in the first iteration. After the first iteration, it can be concluded that A, B, and X are true. The second iteration uses this valuable information. After the second iteration, Rule 2 fires adding Z is true, which in turn helps Rule 4 to fire, proving that D is true. Forward chaining strategy is especially appropriate in situations where data are expensive to collect, but few in quantity. However, special care is to be taken when these rules are constructed, with the preconditions specifying as precisely as possible when different rules should fire. In the backward chaining method, processing starts with the desired goal, and then attempts to find evidence for proving the goal. Returning to the same example, the task to prove that D is true would be initiated by first finding a rule that proves D. Rule 4 does so, which also provides a subgoal to prove that Z is true. Now Rule 2 comes into play, and as it is already known that A is true, the new subgoal is to show that X is true. Rule 3 provides the next subgoal of proving that B is true. But that B is true is one of the given assertions. Therefore, it could be concluded that X is true, which implies that Z is true, which in turn also implies that D is true. Backward chaining is useful in situations where the quantity of data is potentially very large and where some specific characteristic of the system under consideration is of interest. If there is not much knowledge what the conclusion might be, or there is some specific hypothesis to test, forward chaining systems may be inefficient. In principle, we can use the same set of rules for both forward and backward chaining. In the case of backward chaining, since the main concern is with matching the conclusion of a rule against some goal that is to be proved, the ‘then’ (consequent) part of the rule is usually not expressed as an action to take but merely as a state, which will be true if the antecedent part(s) are true (Donald, 1986). heuristic — i.e., it reasons with judgmental knowledge as well as with formal knowledge of established theories; 0 transparent — i.e., it provides explanations of its line of reasoning and answers to queries about its . knowledge; l flexible — i.e., it integrates new knowledge incrementally into its existing store of knowledge.‘. MYCIN [Davis77b] [Shortliffe, 1976]. analyzes medical data about a patient with a severe infection, PROSPECTOR [Duda79] analyzes geological data to aid in mineral exploration, and PUFF [Kunz78] analyzes the medical condition of a person with respiratory problems. In order to provide such analyses, these systems need very specific rules containing the necessary textbook and judgmental knowledge about their domains. The first expert systems, DENDRAL [Lindsay801 and MACSYMA [Moses71], emphasized performance, the former in organic chemistry and the latter in symbolic integration. These systems were built in the mid-1960’s, and were nearly unique in AI because of their focus on real-world problems and on specialized knowledge. In the 1970’s, work on expert systems began to flower, especially in medical problem areas (see, for example [P0ple77, Shortliffc76, Szolovits78, Weiss79bl). The issues of making the system understandable through explanations [Scott77, Swartout811 and of making the system flexible enough to acquire new knowledge [Davis79, Mitchell791 were emphasized in these and later systems. Very often people express knowledge as natural language (spoken language), or using letters or symbolic terms. There exist several methods to extract human knowledge. Cognitive Work Analysis (CWA) and the Cognitive Task Analysis (CTA) provide frameworks to extract knowledge. The CWA is a technique to analyze, design, and evaluate the human computer interactive systems (Vicente, 1999). The CTA is a method to identify cognitive skill, mental demands, and needs to perform task proficiency (Militallo and Hutton, 1998). This focuses on describing the representation of the cognitive elements that defines goal generation and decision-making. It is a reliable method for extracting human knowledge because it is based on the observations or an interview. A representation is a set of conventions for describing the world. In the parlance of AI, the representation of knowledge is the commitment to a vocabulary, data structures, and programs that allow knowledge of a domain to be acquired and used. This has long been a central research topic in AI (see [Amarel81, Barr81, Brachman80, Cohen82] for reviews of relevant work). The interpreter is the source of much of the variation found among different systems, but it may be seen in the simplest terms as a select-execute loop in which one rule applicable to the current state of the data base is chosen and then executed. Its action results in a modified data base, and the select phase begins again. Given that the selection is often a process of choosing the first rule that matches the current data base, it is clear why this cycle is often referred to as a recognize-act, or situation-action, loop. EMYCIN [vanMelle80] [Bennet81a] ROSIE [Fain81], KAS [Reboh81], EXPERT [peiss79a], and OPS [Forgy77] OPS Carnegie-Mellon University [Forgy77] EMYCIN Stanford University [vanMelle80] AL/X University of Edinburgh EXPERT Rutgers University [Weiss79a] KAS SRI International [Reboh81] RAINBOW IBM Scientific Center (Palo Alto) [Hollander79] One of the most popular shells widely used throughout the government, industry, and academia is the CLIPS (CLIPS, 2004). CLIPS is an expert system tool that provides a complete environment for the construction of rule- and/or object-based expert systems. CLIPS provides a cohesive tool for handling a wide variety of knowledge with support for three different programming paradigms: rule-based, object-oriented, and procedural. CLIPS is written in C for portability and speed and has been installed on many different operating systems without code changes. There are alternatives to representing task-specific knowledge in rules. Naturally, it is sometimes advantageous to build a new system in PASCAL, FORTRAN, APL, BASIC, LISP, or other language, using a variety of data structures and inference procedures, as needed for the problem. Coding a new system from scratch, however, does not allow concentrating primarily on the knowledge required for high performance. Rather, one tends to spend more time on debugging the procedures that access and manipulate the knowledge. Evolutionary Computation (EC) is a population based adaptive method, which may be used to solve optimization problems, based on the genetic processes of biological organisms (Michalewicz and Fogel, 1999). Over many generations, natural populations evolve according to the principles of natural selection and ‘survival of the fittest’, first clearly stated by Charles Darwin in ‘On the Origin of Species’. By mimicking this process, EC could ‘evolve’ solutions to real-world problems, if they have been suitably encoded (problem representation is called chromosome). Automatic adaptation of membership functions is popularly known as self tuning and the chromosome encodes parameters of trapezoidal, triangle, logistic, hyperbolic-tangent, Gaussian membership functions, and so on. Evolutionary search of fuzzy rules can be carried out using three approaches. In the first method (Michigan approach), the fuzzy knowledge base is adapted as a result of antagonistic roles of competition and cooperation of fuzzy rules. The second method (Pittsburgh approach), evolves a population of knowledge bases rather than individual fuzzy rules. Reproduction operators serve to provide a new combination of rules and new rules. The third method (iterative rule learning approach), is very much similar to the first method with each chromosome representing a single rule, but contrary to the Michigan approach, only the best individual is considered to form part of the solution, discarding the remaining chromosomes of the population. The evolutionary learning process builds up the complete rule base through an iterative learning process (Cordon´ et al., 2001). Modus ponens is the . primary rule of inference by which a system adds new facts to a growing data base: IF B IS TRUE B B AND B IMPLIES C, OR B –> C THEN C IS TRUE. ——– C First, some follow-on research to MYCIN addresses the human engineering problems directly, for example, by integrating high quality graphics with user-oriented forms and charts for input and output [Shortliffe81]. Second, some MYCIN-like programs finesse many human engineering problems by collecting data from on-line instruments rather than from users [Kunz78]. Exportability can be gained by rewriting [Carhart79, Kunz78] or by designing for export initially [Weiss79a]. Extendability — the data structures and access programs must be flexible enough to allow extensions to the knowledge base without forcing substantial revisions. The knowledge base will contain heuristics that are built out of experts’ experience. Not only do the experts fail to remember all relevant heuristics they use, but their experience gives them new heuristics and forces modifications to the old ones. New cases require new distinctions. Moreover, the most effective way we have found for building a knowledge base is by incremental improvement. Experts cannot define a complete knowledge base all at once for interesting problem areas, but they can define a subset and then refine it over many weeks or months of examining its consequences. All this argues for treating the knowledge base of an expert system asean open-ended set of facts and relations, and keeping the items of knowledge as modular as possible. Simplicity — We have all seen data structures that were so baroque as to be incomprehensible, and thus unchangeable. The flexibility WC argued for above requires conceptual simplicity and uniformity so that access routines can be written (and themselves modified occasionally as needed). Once the syntax of the knowledge base is fixed, the access routines can be fixed to a large extent. Knowledge acquisition, for example, can take place with the expert insulated from the data structures by access routines that make the knowledge base appear simple, whether it is or not. However, new reasons will appear for accessing the knowledge base as in explanation of the contents of the knowledge base, analysis of the links among items, display, or tutoring. With each of these reasons, simple data structures pay large benefits. From the designer’s point of vi& there are two ways of maintaining conceptual simplicity: keeping the form of knowledge as homogeneous as possible or writing special access functions for non-uniform representations. Explicitness — The point of representing much of an expert’s knowledge is to give the system a rich enough knowledge base for high-performance problem solving. But because a knowledge base must be built incrementally, it is necessary to provide means for inspecting and debugging it easily. With items of knowledge represented explicitly, in relatively simple terms, the experts who are building knowledge bases can determine what items are present and (by inference) which are absent. Semantic Completeness of the knowledge base for a problem area is also desirable. Because of the nature of the knowledge base and the way it is built, however, it will almost certainly fail to cover some interesting (sometimes important) possibilities. In a very narrow problem area, for example, there may be 100 attributes of interest, with an average of 4 important values for each attribute. (Only in extreme cases will all attributes be binary.) Thus there would be 79,800 possible rules relating two facts (400 items taken two at a time), over 10 million possible rules relating three facts, and so on. While most are semantically implausible, e.g., because of mutually exclusive values, the cost of checking all combinations for completeness is prohibitive. Checking the inferences made by a system in the context of carefully chosen test cases is currently the best way to check the completeness of coverage of the rules If there is only one applicable rule, the obvious thing to do is to apply it. Its application will enter new facts in the database. While that may either enable or disable previously inapplicable rules, by our assumption it will never disable a previously applicable rule. If there is more than one applicable rule, we have the problem of deciding which one to apply. Procedure 21 Select-Rule has the responsibility for making this decision. Different data-driven strategies differ greatly in the amount of problem-solving effort they devote to rule selection. A simple and inexpensive strategy is to select the first rule that is encountered in the scan for S — “doing the first thing that comes to mind.” Unfortunately, unless the rules are favorably ordered, this can result in many useless steps. Elaborations intended to overcome such shortcomings can make data-driven control arbitrarily complex. Methods used for conflict resolution 1 Use the rule with the highest priority. In simple applications, the priority can be established by placing the rules in an appropriate order in the knowledge base. Usually this strategy works well for expert systems with around 100 rules. 2 Use the most specific rule. This method is also known as the longest matching strategy. It is based on the assumption that a specific rule processes more information than a general one. 3 Use the rule that uses the data most recently entered in the database. This method relies on time tags attached to each fact in the database. In the conflict set, the expert system first fires the rule whose antecedent uses the data most recently added to the database. Uncertainty can be expressed numerically as certainty/confidence factor (cf) or measure of belief (mb) cf usually is a real number in a particular range, eg, 0 to 1 or -1 to 1 Combining certainties of propositions and rules Let P1 and P2 be two propositions and cf(P1) and cf(P2) denote their certainties Then cf(P1 and P2) = min(cf(P1), cf(P2)) cf(P1 or P2) = max(cf(P1), cf(P2)) given the rule if P1 then P2: cf = C then certainty of P2 is given by cf(P2) = cf(P1) * C place the responsibility on the knowledge engineer to see that the rules are properly structured. Many problems caused by interactions can be solved by employing a hierarchical structure, with several levels of assertions between the direct observations and the final conclusions. The goal is to localize and limit tic interactions, and to have a rclativcly small number of clauses in a condition and a relatively small number of rules sharing a common conclusion. Note that this limitation on the number of rules does not reduce the amount of evidence considered in reaching a conclusion, but rather controls the ways in which the observations are allowed to interact. A hierarchical structure is typically employed by the experts themselves to reduce the complexity of a problem. Wherever the remaining interactions still prevent the assumption of local independence, the rules have to be reformulated to achieve the desired behavior. For example, in the strongly interacting situation where B, suggests A and B, suggests A, but the simultaneous presence of both B, and I33 rules out A one may have to augment the rule set { (B1 – – > A with weight L1) (B2 – – > A with weight L2) } with the rule (B1 & B2 –> A with weight-m). Thus, rather than viewing probability theory as a paradigm that prescribes how information should be processed, the knowledge engineer employs it as a tool to obtain the desired behavior. In contrast with the heuristic techniques for reasoning with uncertainty employed in many rule-based expert systems, the theory of belief networks is mathematically sound, based on techniques from probability theory. The formalism of belief networks offers an intuitively appealing approach for expressing inexact causal relationships between domain concepts [7, 20]. A belief network consists of two components [3]: • A qualitative representation of the variables and relationships between the variables discerned in the domain, expressed by means of a directed acyclic graph G = (V (G),A(G)), where V (G) = {V1,V2,… ,Vn} is a set of vertices, taken as the variables, and A(G) a set of arcs (Vi,Vj), where Vi,Vj∈ V (G), taken as the relationships between the variables. • A quantitative representation of the ‘strengths’ of the relationships between the variables, expressed by means of assessment functions. Narrow scope — The task for the system must be carefully chosen to be narrow enough that the relevant expcrtisc can be encoded, and yet complex enough that expertise is required. This limitation is more because of the time it takes to engineer the knowlcdgc into a system including rcfmemcnt and debugging, than because space required for the knowledge base. Existence of an expert — Thcie are problems so new or so complex that no one rBnks as an expert in the problem area. Generally speaking, it is unwise to expect to be able to construct an expert system in areas where there are no experts. Agreement among experts — If current problem solving expertise in a task area leaves room for frequent and substantial disagreements among experts, then the task is not appropriate for an expert system. Data available — Not only must the expertise be available, but test data must be available (preferably online). Since an expert system is built incrementally, with knowledge added in response to observed difficulties, it is necessary to have several test cases to help explore the boundaries of what the system knows. Milestones definable — A task that can be broken into subtasks, with measurable milestones, is better than one that cannot be demonstrated until all the parts are working Separation of task-specific knowledge from the rest of the program — This separation is essential to maintain the flexibility and understandability required in expert systems. Attention to detail — Inclusion of very specific items of knowledge about the domain, as well as general facts, is the only way to capture the expertise that experience adds to textbook knowledge. Uniform data structures– A homogeneous representation of knowledge makes it much easier for the system builder to develop acquisition and explanation packages. Symbolic reasoning – It is commonplace in AI, but not elsewhere, to regard symbolic, non-numeric reasoning as a powerful method for problem solving by computers. In applications areas where mathematical methods are absent or computationally intractable, symbolic reasoning offers an attractive alternative. Combination of deductive logic and plausible reasoning — Although deductive reasoning is the standard by which we measure correctness, not all reasoning — even in science and mathematics — is accomplished by deductive logic. Much of the world’s expertise is in heuristics, and programs that attempt to capture expert level knowledge need to combine methods for deductive and plausible reasoning. Explicit problem solving strategy — Just as it is useful to separate the domain-specific knowledge from the inference method, it is also useful to separate the problem solving strategy from both. In debugging the system it helps to remember that the same knowledge base and inference method can produce radically different behaviors with different strategies. For example, consider the difference between “find the best” and “find the first over threshold”. Interactive user interfaces — Drawing the user into the problem solving process is important for tasks in which the user is responsible for the actions recommended by the expert system, as in medicine. For such tasks, the inference method must support an interactive style in which the user contributes specific facts of the case and the program combines them in a coherent analysis. Static queries of the knowledge base — The process of constructing a large knowledge base requires understanding what is (and is not) in it at any moment. Similarly, using a system effectively depends on assessing what it does and does not know. Dynamic queries about the line of reasoning — As an expert system gathers data and makes intermediate conclusions, users (as well as system builders) need to be able to ask enough questions to follow the line of reasoning. Otherwise the system’s advice appears as an oracle from a black box and is less likely to be acceptable. Bandwidth — An expert’s ability to communicate his/her expertise within the framework of an expert system is limited by the restrictions of the framework, the degree to which the knowledge is already well-codified, and the speed with which the expert can create and modify data structures in the knowledge base. Knowledge engineer — One way of providing help to experts during construction of the knowledge base is to let the expert communicate with someone who understands the syntax of the framework, the rule interpreter, the process of knowledge base construction, and the practical psychology of interacting with world-class experts. This person is called a “knowledge engineer”. Level of performance — Empirical measures of adequacy are still the best indicators of performance, even though they are not sufficient for complete validation by any means. As with testing new drugs by the pharmaceutical industry, testing expert systems may. best bc accomplished by randomized studies and double blind experiments. Static evaluation — Because the knowledge base may contain judgmental rules as well as axiomatic truths, logical analysis of its completeness and consistency will be inadequate. However, static checks can reveal potential problems, such as one rule subsuming another and one rule possibly contradicting another. Areas of weakness in a knowledge base can sometimes be found by analysis as well. Many applications programs that have the characteristics of expert systems have been developed for analysis problems in a diversity of areas including: chemistry [Buchanan78, Carhart79]; genetics [Stefik78]; protein crystallography [Engelmore79]; physics [Bundy79, Larkin80, Novak80,]; interpretation of oil well logs [Barstow79b, Davis81]; electronics troubleshooting [Addis80, Bennett81b, Brown82, Davis82b, Genesereth81b, Kandt81, Stallman77]; materials engineering [Basden82, Ishizuka81]; mathematics [Brown78, Moses71]; medical diagnosis [Chandrasekaran80, Fagan80, Goriy78, Heisdr78, Horn81, Kaihara78, Lindberg81, Pati181, Pople77, Reggia78, Shortliffe76, Shortliffe81, Swartout77, Szolovits78, Tsotsos81, Weiss79bl; mineral exploration [Duda79]; aircraft identification and mission planning [Engelman79]; military situation assessment [McCo1179, Nii82]; and process control [wamdani82]. analysis problems are described using many different terms, including: l Data Interpretation l Explanation of Empirical Data l Understanding a Complex of Data (c.g., signal understanding) l Classification l Situation Assessment l Diagnosis (of diseases, equipment failures, etc.) l Troubleshooting l Fault Isolation l Debugging l Crisis Management (diagnosis half) Synthesis problems arise in many fields including: planning experiments in molecular genetics [Fricdland79, Stefik801, configuring the components of a computer system [McDcrmott80, McDcrrnott81]; scheduling [Fox82, Goldstein79, Lauriere78]; automatic programming [Barstow79a, McCune77]; electronics design [deKleer80, Dincbas80, Sussman78], and chemical synthesis [Gelernter77, Wipke77]. These problems have been called: l Planning (or Constructing a Plan of Action) l Fault Repair l Process Specification l Design (of complex devices or of experiments) l Configuration l Therapy (or therapy planning) l Automatic Programming l Computer-Aided Chemical Synthesis Planning In addition to analysis and synthesis problems, expert systems have been built to provide advice on how to USC a complex system [Anderson76, Bennett79, Gencscreth78, Hewitt75, Krueger81, Rivlin80, Waterman79] or to tutor a novice in the use or understanding of a body of knowledge [Brown82, Clancey79, O’Shea79]. These problems arc partly analytic, since the advice or tutorial must be guided by an analysis of the context, and partly synthetic since the advice must be tailored to the user and the problem at hand. The proficiency of an expert system is dependent on the amount of domain-specific expertise it contains. But expertise about interesting problems is not always neatly codified and waiting for transliteration into a program’s internal representation. Expertise exists in many forms and in many places, and the task’ of knowledge engineering includes bringing together what is known about a problem as well as transforming (not merely transcribing) it into the system. http://www.theimpactinstitute.org/Teaching/CS4725/rbs.pdfhttp://nptel.ac.in/courses/106105078/pdf/Lesson%2018.pdfhttp://www.businesssemantics.com/Resources/How_SBVR_Adds_Knowledge_Richness_to_ISO_TC_37_Terminology_Standards.pdfNote that because it is often easier to design large rule systems as a sequence of independent rulesets to be executed in some order, rule engines sometimes extend the notion of rule execution with mechanisms to orchestrate rulesets – typically called “ruleflows”. Another approach is to deploy rulesets in a continuous, event-driven rule engine or agent for tasks such as CEP (Complex Event Processing). Other UML constructs such as state models might be used to provide context for rule execution. Modeling the state of entities over time, and the continuous processing of events, usually requires stateful operation of the rule engine so that information is retained in the rule engine between events For business processes represented in a BPMS (Business Process Management System), detailing decision logic within the process diagram often obfuscates the core business processes. Business processes can represent manual (workflow) or automated tasks, with the commonest form of process representation being BPMN (Business Process Modeling Notation). The most common format2 for BPM users to represent business rules is the decision table. This provides a common set of condition and action statements, with the table providing different values representing different rules. Some systems map decision tables to a specific algorithm; others will map them to component production rules. Similar models are decision trees and decision graphs. Note that decision models output from Predictive Analytics tools may or may not be usefully mapped to production rules. One example might be a segmentation model representing a decision tree segmenting customers for marketing offers, which maps to a decision tree and thence production rules. Alternatively a model type such as a neural net representing a face-recognition feature will not usefully map to production rules. Often such analytics tools generate models in a language called PMML (Predictive Model Markup Language) the “why” column in fact drives all the other ones. Why is your data the way it is? Why do you need to know certain “facts” and “terms” (entities and relationships)? Why do you process this way and no the other? Why isn’t this or that allowed? In fact all these questions have always been done. They just weren’t recorded appropriately in our models. These tools are for the recording and organizing of the BR. • QSS DOORs (a requirements management tool actually) (www2.telelogic.com/doors) • Rational’s Requisite PRO (idem) ( www.rational.com) • Riverton’s HOW ( www.riverton.com) • Usoft’s Teamwork ( www.usoft.com) • Business Rules Solutions’ BRS Ruletrack ( www.brsolutions.com) |
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Electricity and Photovoltaics Electricity An alternator is an electrical generator that converts mechanical energy to electrical energy in the form of alternating current. For reasons of cost and simplicity, most alternators use a rotating magnetic field with a stationary armature. Occasionally, a linear alternator or a rotating armature with a stationary magnetic field is used. In principle, any AC electrical generator can be called an alternator, but usually the term refers to small rotating machines driven by automotive and other internal combustion engines. Large 50 or 60 Hz three phase alternators in power plants generate most of the world’s electric power, which is distributed by electric power grids. Alternators are also in Cars, they allow the Car to recharge its battery as it Drives, which is why if your Car battery dies you just have to drive around for a little while after getting it jumped in order for it to be able to start working regularly again, until you can get a new one. This is a row of Alternators at a Power Plant  Faraday’s law of induction is a basic law of electromagnetism predicting how a magnetic field will interact with an electric circuit to produce an electromotive force (EMF)—a phenomenon called electromagnetic induction. It is the fundamental operating principle of transformers, inductors, and many types of electrical motors, generators and solenoids.   Maxwell’s equations are a set of partial differential equations that, together with the Lorentz force law, form the foundation of classical electrodynamics, classical optics, and electric circuits. These fields in turn underlie modern electrical and communications technologies. Maxwell’s equations describe how electric and magnetic fields are generated and altered by each other and by charges and currents. They are named after the physicist and mathematician James Clerk Maxwell, who published an early form of those equations between 1861 and 1862.  Electrical Engineering Books: http://www.eletrica.ufpr.br/graduacao/e-books/Mcgraw-Hill%20-%20Principles%20And%20Applications%20Of%20Electrical%20Engineering.pdfhttp://webbut.unitbv.ro/Carti%20on-line/Fizica/Nicolaide.pdfhttp://iate.oac.uncor.edu/~manuel/libros/ElectroMagnetism/The%20Art%20of%20Electronics%20-%20Horowitz%20&%20Hill.pdfhttp://www.fisica.net/ebooks/eletricidade/PANOFSKY%20AND%20PHILIPS%20-%20Classical%20Electricity%20and%20Magnetism%202nd.%20Ed..pdfhttp://www.isu.edu.tw/upload/52/33/news/postfile_36558.pdfPhotovoltaics Solar Technology http://www.nsf.gov/news/special_reports/science_nation/sprayonsolar.jsphttp://inhabitat.com/hypersolar-increases-solar-efficiency-by-300-with-magnifying-film/“Alexandre Edmond Becquerel created the world’s first photovoltaic cell in 1839. In this experiment, silver chloride was placed in an acidic solution and illuminated while connected to platinum electrodes, generating voltage and current. Because of this work, the photovoltaic effect has also been known as the “Becquerel effect”. The Photovoltaic effect, a process in which two dissimilar materials in close contact produce an electrical voltage when struck by light or other radiant energy. Light striking crystals such as silicon or germanium, in which electrons are usually not free to move from atom to atom within the crystal, provides the energy needed to free some electrons from their bound condition. Free electrons cross the junction between two dissimilar crystals more easily in one direction than in the other, giving one side of the junction a negative charge and, therefore, a negative voltage with respect to the other side, just as one electrode of a battery has a negative voltage with respect to the other. The photovoltaic effect can continue to provide voltage and current as long as light continues to fall on the two materials. This current can be used to measure the brightness of the incident light or as a source of power in an electrical circuit, as in a solar power system.” Solar Powered Alternators and Generators http://www.ewp.rpi.edu/hartford/~lindgc/Project/FinalReport.pdfhttp://www.sunrnr.com/uploads/PortableSolarGenerator101.pdfhttps://www.princeton.edu/~ota/disk3/1978/7802/780214.PDFhttps://www.fkf.mpg.de/1253832/Highly-Efficient-Thermoelectronic-Conversion-of-Solar-Energy-and-Heat-into-Electric-Power.pdfhttp://self.org/SELF_White_Paper_-_Solar_vs_Diesel.pdfhttp://acep.uaf.edu/media/87693/SolarDieselGridHandbook.pdfhttp://drum.lib.umd.edu/bitstream/handle/1903/11276/Jacobus_umd_0117N_11857.pdf;jsessionid=14FF1B6EAF77B77E067BCF6BDD8EF26F?sequence=1https://www1.eere.energy.gov/femp/pdfs/26042.pdfhttp://www1.eere.energy.gov/solar/review_meeting/pdfs/prm2008_white_infinia.pdfQuantum Dots in Photovoltaics http://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/34814/InTech-Silicon_quantum_dots_for_photovoltaics_a_review.pdfA quantum dot solar cell is a solar cell design that uses quantum dots as the absorbing photovoltaic material. It attempts to replace bulk materials such as silicon, copper indium gallium selenide (CIGS) or CdTe. Quantum dots have bandgaps that are tunable across a wide range of energy levels by changing the dots’ size. In bulk materials the bandgap is fixed by the choice of material(s). This property makes quantum dots attractive for multi-junction solar cells, where a variety of materials are used to improve efficiency by harvesting multiple portions of the solar spectrum. Dye-Sensitized Photovoltaics http://www.e-renewables.com/documents/Solar/Dye-sensitized%20photovoltaic%20cells.pdfhttp://krex.k-state.edu/dspace/bitstream/handle/2097/12416/JeremyEssner2011.pdf?sequence=3&isAllowed=yA dye-sensitized solar cell (DSSC, DSC or DYSC) is a low-cost solar cell belonging to the group of thin film solar cells. It is based on a semiconductor formed between a photo-sensitized anode and anelectrolyte, a photoelectrochemical system. The modern version of a dye solar cell, also known as the Grätzel cell, was originally co-invented in 1988 by Brian O’Regan and Michael Grätzel at UC Berkeley and this work was later developed by the aforementioned scientists at the École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne until the publication of the first high efficiency DSSC in 1991. Carrier Multiplication in Photovoltaics http://ccccchem.uci.edu/~lawm/Generating%20Free%20Charges%20by%20Carrier%20Multiplication%20in%20Quantum%20Dots%20for%20Highly%20Efficient%20Photovoltaics.pdfIn solar cell research, carrier multiplication is the phenomenon wherein the absorption of a single photon leads to the excitation of multiple electrons from the valence band to conduction band. In the theory of a conventional solar cell, each photon is only able to excite one electron across the band gap of the semiconductor, and any excess energy in that photon is dissipated as heat. In a material with carrier multiplication, high-energy photons excite on average more than one electron across the band gap, and so in principle the solar cell can produce more useful work. Colloids in Photovoltaics https://books.google.com/books?id=bjvHECpuyvAC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Colloidal+Semiconductor+Nanowires:+Synthesis,+Quantum-confinement-effect+google+books&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0CB0Q6AEwAGoVChMI0OOfh8PPyAIVCVOICh0VyQDq#v=onepage&q&f=falseThiols in Photovoltaics http://www.light.utoronto.ca/edit/files/publications/2008/barkhouse_2008_1.pdfNanocrystal Acid Treatments in Photovoltaics https://zenodo.org/record/1133/files/post-deposition-Nanotechnology-revised2.pdfPhotoelectrochemical cells http://gcep.stanford.edu/pdfs/hydrogen_workshop/MacQueen.pdfPhotoelectrochemical cells or PECs are solar cells that produce electrical energy or hydrogen in a process similar to the electrolysis of water. Thermophotovoltaic Cells Thermophotovoltaic (TPV) energy conversion is a direct conversion process from heat to electricity via photons. A basic thermophotovoltaic system consists of a thermal emitter and a photovoltaic diode cell. http://web.ics.purdue.edu/~pbermel/pdf/Celanovic11.pdfhttp://jxcrystals.com/publications/40PVSC_Fraas_Manuscript%207-21-2014.pdfhttp://calhoun.nps.edu/bitstream/handle/10945/1170/04Jun_Davenport.pdf?sequence=1Micro-Thermophotovoltaic Cells http://serve.me.nus.edu.sg/shuchang/Publications/Latest%20papers%20for%20web/yang-chou-shu-li-xue-sensc%20(2003).pdfDual-Thermophotovoltaic Cells http://cpb.iphy.ac.cn/fileup/PDF/2013-10-108402.pdfThermophotovoltaic Monolithic Interconnected Modules http://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/20030113048.pdfPhotovoltaic Design http://www.uccs.edu/~rtirado/PV_Resources.pdfGeometrical Photovoltaic design for shade tolerance http://arxiv.org/ftp/arxiv/papers/1303/1303.4604.pdfPhotovoltaic Materials: Amorphous silicon (a-Si) is the non-crystalline form of silicon used for solar cells and thin-film transistors in LCD displays. Used as semiconductor material for a-Si solar cells, or thin-film silicon solar cells, it is deposited in thin films onto a variety of flexible substrates, such as glass, metal and plastic. Amorphous silicon cells generally feature low efficiency, but are one of the most environmentally friendly photovoltaic technologies, since they do not use any toxic heavy metals such as cadmium or lead. http://www.solarhome.ru/downloads/pv/a-Si_Advantages.pdfGallium arsenide (GaAs) is a compound of the elements gallium and arsenic. It is a III-V direct bandgap semiconductor with a zinc blende crystal structure. Gallium arsenide is used in the manufacture of devices such as microwave frequency integrated circuits, monolithic microwave integrated circuits, infrared light-emitting diodes, laser diodes, solar cells and optical windows. http://www.nrel.gov/docs/fy13osti/57902.pdfhttps://mundaylab.umd.edu/wp-content/uploads/JournalOfPV_20121.pdfCadmium telluride (CdTe) is a stable crystalline compound formed from cadmium and tellurium. It is mainly used as the semiconducting material in cadmium telluride photovoltaics and an infrared optical window. It is usually sandwiched with cadmium sulfide to form a p-n junction solar PV cell. Typically, CdTe PV cells use a n-i-p structure. http://www.ijcea.org/papers/290-A00012.pdfCopper indium gallium (di)selenide (CIGS) is a I-III-VI2 semiconductor material composed of copper, indium, gallium, and selenium. The material is a solid solution of copper indium selenide (often abbreviated “CIS”) and copper gallium selenide. It has a chemical formula of CuInxGa(1-x)Se2 where the value of x can vary from 1 (pure copper indium selenide) to 0 (pure copper gallium selenide). CIGS is a tetrahedrally bonded semiconductor, with the chalcopyrite crystal structure, and a bandgap varying continuously with x from about 1.0 eV (for copper indium selenide) to about 1.7 eV (for copper gallium selenide). http://depts.washington.edu/uwcei/wordpress/wp-content/uploads/2014/04/PVcelldisplaycards.pdfConcentrator photovoltaics & High concentrator photovoltaics Concentrator photovoltaics (CPV) is a photovoltaic technology that generates electricity from sunlight. Contrary to conventional photovoltaic systems, it uses lenses and curved mirrors to focus sunlight onto small, but highly efficient, multi-junction (MJ) solar cells. In addition, CPV systems often use solar trackers and sometimes a cooling system to further increase their efficiency.[2]:30 Ongoing research and development is rapidly improving their competitiveness in the utility-scale segment and in areas of high solar insolation. This sort of solar technology can be thus used in smaller areas. Especially systems using high concentrator photovoltaics (HCPV), have the potential to become competitive in the near future. They possess the highest efficiency of all existing PV technologies, and a smaller photovoltaic array also reduces the balance of system costs. Currently, CPV is not used in the PV roof top segment and far less common than conventional PV systems. For regions with a high annual direct normal irradiance of 2000 kilowatt-hour (kWh) per square meter or more, the levelized cost of electricity is in the range of $0.08–$0.15 per kWh and installation cost for a 10-megawatt CPV power plant was identified to lie between €1.40–€2.20 per watt-peak (Wp). http://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs-wm/32594.pdfhttp://www.isetc.org/English/Archives/201010/Presentations/ISETC-2010-Oct20-Phil_Metz.pdfhttp://www.researchgate.net/publication/227421386_High_Concentrator_PhotoVoltaics_efficiencies_Present_status_and_forecasthttp://gcep.stanford.edu/pdfs/solar_workshop_10_04/SolarKing2004.pdfhttp://www.crses.sun.ac.za/files/services/conferences/annual-student-symposium-2012/22_November/8_Schultz.pdfConcentrated solar power (also called concentrating solar power, concentrated solar thermal, and CSP) systems generate solar power by using mirrors or lenses to concentrate a large area of sunlight, or solar thermal energy, onto a small area. Electricity is generated when the concentrated light is converted to heat, which drives a heat engine (usually a steam turbine) connected to an electrical power generator or powers a thermochemical reaction. Photonics is the science of light (photon) generation, detection, and manipulation through emission, transmission, modulation, signal processing, switching, amplification, and detection/sensing. Though covering all light’s technical applications over the whole spectrum, most photonic applications are in the range of visible and near-infrared light. http://www.irena.org/DocumentDownloads/Publications/RE_Technologies_Cost_Analysis-CSP.pdfhttp://www.nrel.gov/docs/fy01osti/28751.pdfPhotonic Integrated Circuits A photonic integrated circuit (PIC) or integrated optical circuit is a device that integrates multiple (at least two) photonic functions and as such is similar to an electronic integrated circuit. The major difference between the two is that a photonic integrated circuit provides functionality for information signals imposed on optical wavelengths typically in the visible spectrum or near infrared 850 nm-1650 nm. http://www.phys.sinica.edu.tw/TIGP-NANO/Course/2008_Spring/classnotes/Nano_MHS_TIGP_20080509_Photonics.pdfhttp://www.photonics.ntua.gr/OptikaDiktyaEpikoinwnias/Lecture_6_Integration.pdfhttp://optoelectronics.ece.ucsb.edu/sites/default/files/shared/06387568.pdf |
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Phalaris Grass- To be used as straw in Cobb building, as well as seed for bird feed.
Giant Reed- To be used for Biodiesel (and sugar) production & for use as a fence.
Datura- To deter animals from eating your crops
Llama & Alpaca- For Clothing, Blanket & other fabric production
Guinea Chickens- To eat ants, ticks & other pests. As well as produce eggs.
Ferrets- To help with running wires for construction, retrieving items & other small tasks
Dogs- To shepherd animals and help disabled people.
Chocolate Plants- For Chocolate production
Blue Agave- For Sugar and Biodiesel production
Homing Pigeons- For delivering messages
Colorado River Toads- To eat snakes, mice & other pests
Lady Bugs- To protect crops
Bees- For honey, wax and pollination
Worms- For composting
Aloe Vera- For Sun Damage and Scar healing
Passion Flower- To grow on houses for beauty and help with cooling costs
Spiders- As pesticides (spiders that eat bugs, but don't harm fruit or humans)
Stuff for eating and Dyes:
Marigold, Indigo, Madder, Pomegranate, Soapnut, Pericarp, Onions, Eucalyptus, Strawberries, Raspberries, Roses, Lavender, St. John's Wort, Foxglove, Syrian Rue.
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